An Improvement in Project Leadership Skills

An Improvement in Project Leadership Skills 1.0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Though project managers have placed client needs and demands at a priority, client expectations, and the increase in global competition, as well as the enormous impact projects have on firms, have led to a further increasing demand for the use of more effective leadership skills that can assist project managers in project team leadership (Zimmerer and Yasin, 1998). Project management involves project monitoring and supervision that is global in nature, involving projects with team members from diverse professional backgrounds, cultures, languages, and nations. Again, project management does not just involve the management of people, but also time and material resources (Veal 2004). This calls for vital strategic planning, and the management of resources for effective project management delivery. The complexities in present day projects require not just management abilities, but also an improvement in project leadership skills and competencies (Zimmerer and Yasin, 1998). 1.2 ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT Leadership, according to Jago (1982), is the application of non-coercive influence in directing the activities of individual members of an organised group in an effort to achieving the groups objectives. Leadership in this context is considered in relation to some qualities and characteristics of those who successfully implement such influences. In the context of project management, leadership can be seen as a process undertaken by an organisation in taking responsibility of team members who work with the project manager toward the achievement of project aims (Cleland, 1995). A project managers leadership skills and competencies have become necessary in harnessing the activities of the entire project stakeholders; as a result, this has led to conception of his leadership skills as an important aspect of project control (Barber and Warns, 2005). This is particularly important given the fact that though the project manager uses skilled manpower, material resources, as well as other app ropriate methods when embarking on projects, some projects do run overtime, over budget, or suffer failure in the achievement of the particular project goal (Barber and Warns, 2005). Using appropriate leadership skills, a project manager is able to forestall such eventualities where and when possible, and redirect the efforts of the team members toward attaining the desired project objectives. His ability to lead human resources associated with the project shows the leadership excellence as regards defining the project scope, time, cost management, quality and communication (Cleland, 1995). For this reason, therefore, a project manager continuously needs to develop appropriate leadership skills; competencies and styles needed down the different stages of the projects lifecycle. It implies that for a successful project delivery, the project manager needs to demonstrate not just an appropriate technical knowhow, but also a show of effective administrative and leadership skills (Burke, 2007). The question then arises as to what the skills and competencies are, that are considered essential for present day competent project managers (Ingason and Jonasson, 2009), in the delivery of projects. In the past, technical competence was taken to be the required skill that a project manager should possess in order to lead projects to success (Zimmerer and Yasin, 1998). But in contemporary times, team building, motivation (Jacques et al, 2008), vision, management, and communication (Barber and Warn, 2005), have all been identified as being part of the necessary skills and competencies a project manager needs to cultivate for effective delivery of projects. While the issue of project leadership has been the subject of so many research endeavours (Cleland, 1995, Washbush and Clements, 1999; Prabhakar, 2005; Jacques et al, 2008) a relatively fewer other researchers have focused on the leadership skills and competencies appropriate for a project managers use in leading the project team members, and the impact they have in the management of projects (Turner and Mà ¼ller, 2005; Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008). Majority of research endeavours in this area have considered the idea that a project managers application of leadership skills in projects lead to the successful delivery of projects and this has prompted the assessment of the factors that matter in his ability to utilise available human and material resources, and also lead and manage the project team, and other stakeholders. Other research works (Turner and Muller, 2005; Pinto and Trailer, 1998), however, recognise the importance of a project managers leadership skills when managing p rojects, but do not explicitly link these skills and competencies that characterise a project manager, as necessary for successful management of the project. This, therefore, forms the bulk of the debate that academic scholars in this area have preoccupied themselves. A key area of this debate concerns the fact that some relevant literature materials (Crawford, 2007; Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008) that attached great importance to the leadership skills and competencies of a project manager have further identified a project manager as a success factor for projects. The view of these project management pundits is that project success can be a possible result of the application of the attributes of a project manager during project management. This is achieved with the project managers communication, technical and motivational skills, and a host of other skills and competencies that allow him successful lead the project team members toward the achievement of the project goal. On an opposite vein, a few other project management scholars did not view a project manager as a success factor for projects (Pinto and Slevin, 1998; Turner and Mà ¼ller, 2005). This group of project management scholars observe that the use of appropriate tools and techniques is what counts in the realization of project success. This presents an implication which denotes that the leadership skills of a project manager make no additional impact in project performance. A particular literature endeavour that has significantly dealt with the issue of the present study is the work of Turner and Mà ¼ller (2005). Though their findings suggest that the literature does not view a project manager and his leadership competencies as a success factor for projects, they, however, recommended that for this argument to be resolved, the question of a project managers leadership skills and competencies, and the question of possible impact in the achievement of successful project management should be measured. As a result of this recommendation, this research investigates the views expressed in other project management literature, on the impact leadership skills and competencies of a project manager have in the management of projects. To this end, there would be an investiga tion into what constituted project management success factors in the project management history, especially during the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This effort is realised by conducting some in-depth interviews and exploring some relevant literature at these periods to identify their arguments on what constituted project success factors, and to ascertain the place of a project manager and his or her leadership skills and competencies in project management history. 1.3 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES The purpose of this research is to determine if a project managers leadership skills and competencies can act as a catalyst in bringing about successful project performance. In this context, therefore, this research tries to determine whether the application of effective leadership skills and competencies can impact on the management of projects towards the achievement of a quality and successful project performance. This will involve implementing the recommendation of the research of Turner and Muller (2005) by evaluating what constitutes project success factors to ascertain if a project manager is considered as a project management success factor, using the project management literature works and semi-structured interview. Also, contributing to the existing body of knowledge on the impact of a project managers leadership skills and competencies in project management, the objectives, as derived from the aim of this research are: To determine the leadership skills and competencies available for a project managers use in the management of projects. To critically examine the impact of the application of a project managers leadership skills and competencies in project delivery. To determine if a project manager is a project management success factor. 1.4 RESEARCH STRUCTURE This research begins with a critical review of some recent debates in the project management literature on arguments relating to leadership styles, skills and competencies appropriate for a project manager in chapter 2. It goes further to review the ideas of project management pundits on the impact these leadership skills and competencies have while managing projects. It also investigates the contribution of leadership to project managers especially as more and more project management scholars lay emphasis on project managers developing leadership skills for a better management of projects. Chapter 3 presents the research design and the methodology used in the anchorage of this dissertation for the achievement of its aim and objectives encapsulated in a six layer research onion model presented in figure 4. This chapter begins by presenting interpretivism and induction as the philosophy and approach that engulfs this research. This chapter further highlights the use of qualitative research method and how qualitative content analysis is used in the process of data collection and analysis of the data that came mainly from the literature sources towards the development of a grounded theory for this research. To reduce the limitation that could arise from the use of literature sources alone, semi-structured interviews were used in complementing the data collected from the literature works. The time horizon and the ethical consideration in relation to data collection and analysis is equally presented in this chapter. The analysis of the data gathered is presented in chapter 4, using the methods discussed above towards the development of the grounded theory, in achieving the aim of this research. The findings of this research are presented in chapter 5, and are related to the previous findings found in the project management literature as discussed in the review of the literature in chapter two. Lastly, the limitations of this study and a recommendation for further research are also presented in this chapter. Finally, a summary of the research is presented in chapter six and this research concludes by offering some opportunities further research can anchor on. CHAPTER II 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter examines some key academic interests in the role of the project managers leadership skills and competencies for the achievement of successful project management. Reviewing the relevant body of literature on this topic, will be necessary; as it will offer an insight into relevant concerns of the research and provide the required background in addressing the research questions identified earlier on. Among the themes academic pundits in this area have shown interest in are identified in figure 1, they are: leadership styles, the project manager and project success, the project managers leadership competences and the impact of leadership in project management. This chapter critically examines these areas of interest in a wider context, and their impact in achieving successful project management. 2.1 LITERATURE SCOPE It must be noted that the study of effective leadership skills is necessary for quality project management and efficiency (Strang, 2005). A plethora of literature materials exist on the importance of leadership in the successful management of projects, but for the purpose of this study, this research will concentrate on literature sources that have direct bearing on the subject matter of the research, which are identified in figure 1. The review of the literature would encompass leadership styles as a core area in project success. It will explore leadership approaches particularly transformational leadership style used by project managers in the process of managing the human aspects of projects, namely, the project team members, and stakeholders. The concept of ‘success in project management and the project managers contributions toward the achievement of success will also be critically assessed. On the other hand, literature on the project manager and his leadership competencies will be reviewed to ascertain the viability of his leadership competencies toward increasing the chances for successful project delivery. Lastly, the body of literature on the impact of leadership in project management will consider the contribution of leadership in managing projects, by making a comparison of leadership and management in leading the project team. 2.2 LEADERSHIP STYLES The question of what makes a good leader has been an age long problem. Among prominent authors that have commented on this issue include, Plato, Machiavelli, Hobbes and Lock (Collinson, 1998). Turner and Mà ¼ller (2005) identified six main leadership theories that have been singled out as the main leadership schools over seventy years ago. These schools are: The trait school The behaviour or style school The contingency school The emotional intelligent school, and The competency school Transformational leadership school This research will be focusing mainly on transformational leadership due to the emphasis project management literature places on it in leading project members. This research will examine the impact of transformational leadership in project management. 2.2.1 Transformational leadership in project management: The literature has associated transformational leadership with those leaders that create â€Å"a shared vision of the future and a relationship between leaders and followers based on far more than just the simple exchange of rewards for compliance† (Keegan and Hartog, 2004:609). What distinguishes transformational leaders is their ability in articulating some attractive vision of the future (Hartog and Verburg, 1997). Transformational leaders exhibit self-confidence and charisma which can and do attract subordinate to those identified vision or mission (Keegan and Hartlog, 2004). Northouse (1997) indicates that transformational leadership transforms and changes individuals. He added that this sort of leadership is open to the needs of the followers. Transformational leadership has been contrasted with transactional leadership (Leban and Zulauf, 2004) which focuses on the physical and security needs of its followers (Lams ila and Ogunlana, 2008). Most commentators have agreed that transactional leadership is based on the model that there is exchange process between leaders and followers, with leaders providing reward for the subordinates compliance (Northouse, 1997; Strang, 2005: Sadler, 2003 and Jogulu and Wood, 2006). While the followers are motivated by the effect the transformational leaders have on them in terms of making them aware of the values and outcome of their goals, transactional leaders on the other hand, utilises reward in motivating their subordinate. Keegan and Hartog (2004) recently noted that leading commentators have â€Å"begun to suggest that transformational leadership may be of particular interest in the project based-context† (p. 610). These commentators continue to emphasis increasing importance of motivational and emotional features of project managers as well as the importance of project managers to instil faith and commitment to their organization as part of their role (Turner and Mà ¼ller, 2003). Research have shown that project managers are considered to be leading people from different profession and diverse culture, therefore the use of transformational leadership becomes necessary due to its emphasis on vision, inspirational and motivational role of leaders (Cleland and Ireland, 2002; Keegan and Hartog, 2004). While leading such talented professionals therefore, the emphasis has drifted from control and compliance to dedication, identification and loyalty, which are characteristic of transformational lead ership (Keegan and Hartog, 2004). The literature has identified the importance of transformational leadership in project management (Yammarino and Bass, 1990; Leban and Zulauf, 2004; Barber and Warn, 2005). This importance is identified in the continuous need for project managers to be forward thinking, constantly anticipating where things may likely go wrong in project, so that steps can be placed in anticipation towards resolving them where possible and recovery measure put in place should they not be preventable (Lewis, 2001). Similarly, Barber and Warn (2005) have identified idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation as components of transformational leadership, which enable them â€Å"to explain the big picture, anticipate events and even prevent problems† (p. 1032). In figure 2, Prabhakars (2005) research suggests that transformational leaders who inspire and motivate their followers to face the challenges of their work appeared to achieve project success. This is achieved through the relationship transformational leaders build with their subordinates using an interactive communication that forms a bond between them. Figure 2: Relationship between leadership variables and project success after Prabhakar (2005). In line with the finding of Prabhakar (2005) Leban and Zulauf (2004) suggest that â€Å"transformational project manager behaviour has a positive impact on actual project performance† (p. 561). Furthermore, they stated that transformational project management is achieved through the use of project managers who are result focused through inspiration and motivation. However, the finding of Strang (2005) shows that although the application of transformational leadership while leading project team have a tendency of fostering leader-follower relationship strong transformational leadership however, is not always required in producing effective organizational outcomes. Equally, it has been observed that while transformational leadership in project context leads to stakeholders satisfaction, the finding of Strang (2005) suggest that it does not on the other hand guarantee organizational performance. From the foregoing, it has been suggested that transformational leadership has an important influence by reshaping the way people think, which is considered an aspect of project leadership skills (Partington, 2003). 2.3 PROJECT SUCCESS AND THE PROJECT MANAGER Research has it that in the field of project management, among the few topics that are frequently discussed but rarely agreed upon is what constitutes success in project (Pinto and Slevin, 1988a). Given the fact that â€Å"the search for factors that lead to better project performance and success spans many years of research† (Dov et al, 2006:36). Table 1, presents the findings of Jugdev and Mà ¼ller (2005) which identified four periods in the history of project management and the perceptions of the factors that possibly led to achieving successful project management. Period 1: Project implementation and Handover (1960s-1980s). At this stage, simple metric such as time, cost and specifications were the yardsticks used in measuring project success because they were understood to be easy for organizational use. â€Å"Project managers focused on getting a project done, making sure it worked, and getting out the way† (Judgev and Mà ¼ller, 2005:23). Studies at this time focused on scheduling as the criteria for project success or failure, while others relied on budget and performance as the success factor (Pinto and Slevin, 1988b) and client satisfaction (Shenhar et al, 1997).The emphasis at this stage was on the effectiveness of the measures and the technical system than the behaviours of the individual members of the project (Judgev and Mà ¼ller, 2005). Period 2: CSF Lists (1980s -1990s). According Judgev and Mà ¼ller (2005) this stage was preoccupied with developing some critical success factors (CSF) lists. Cooke-Davies (2002) saw critical success factors as those â€Å"inputs to the management system that lead directly or indirectly to the success of the project or business (p.185). At this stage, the literature focused on the satisfaction of the stakeholders as what guarantees project success. At the completion of the project what matters was not job completion rather the satisfaction criterion which was â€Å"are we happy† (Judgev and Mà ¼ller, 2005). End users impacts are felt as the yardstick for success which contradicts with the period 1. Among the CSFs as the literature identified were effective communications, clear objective, scope and the use of project plan as living documents (Clarke, 1999). Judgev and Mà ¼ller (2005) further identified change management, organizational effectiveness and the alignment betwe en project management and strategic management as all part of CSFs. Period 3: CSF Frameworks (1990s -2000s). At this period, the literature questioned the concept that project success is based on stakeholders-dependent and linking success with the internal and recipient organization (Kerzner, 1987: Lester, 1998). Morris and Hough (1987) developed new framework dealing on the preconditions of project success in four categories which are: Project functionality: Does such project meet up with the financial and technical requirement. Project management: Did such project meet up with the stipulated budget, schedule and specification. Contractors commercial performance: Did the project contractors benefit in a commercial way. Project termination: Peradventure a project is cancelled, was such cancellation done reasonably and effectively. Cleland and Ireland (2002) approached the issue of project success from two points of view, first, project success should be measured in view of meeting the performance objectives (cost, time and scope), and secondly it could be measured using the impact of such project on the strategic mission of the firm. Period 4: strategic project management (21st century). At this period, project success has been linked to many factors than just one common mission like organizational benefit, product success and team development (Atkinson, 1999 and Baccarini, 1999). Equally CSFs at this period incorporated â€Å"senior management commitment to provide the vision, strategy and sponsorship† (Judgev and Mà ¼ller, 2005:28) and such success factor relate to the organization including the external environment. Judgev and Mà ¼ller (2005) indicates that most recent literature have identified four necessary but not sufficient criteria for success that need to be in place for projects to be successfully managed, which are: Success criteria need to be agreed on with the project stakeholders before embarking on project. There should be a collaborative working relationship with the project sponsor and the project manager and they should view the project as partners. There is need to empower the project manager with some sort of flexibility as to be able to deal with unforeseen circumstances, and the project sponsor should give directives on the best way of achieving project success. The project sponsor needs to show an interest in the performance of the project. Subsequent research by Turner and Mà ¼ller (2005) suggests that during 1980s, the literature grew rapidly; with different authors listing what they thought constituted project success. Surprisingly, though the literature of this time emphasised that the project manager should be competent enough to get things done well, their finding suggests that: â€Å"rarely does the literature on project success factors specifically or overtly mention project manager and his or her leadership style and competence. Perhaps the project manager does not contribute to project success. Perhaps there is something about the nature of projects and the project teams that means that their success is not dependent on the leadership style and competence of the manager† (Turner and Mà ¼ller, (2005:57). This very remark suggests that the impact of the project managers leadership style possibly do not necessarily lead to project success. Andersen et al (1987) identified some pitfalls that may hinder project success and increase project failure. These pitfalls include the method that is used to plan, organize and control projects. Baker et al (1988) saw project success as achieving the projects technical specification or mission while earning a high valued satisfaction from the client, the end user and the project team as well. They equally advocated planning as against perceiving leadership as a key factor while maximizing potential project success. Table 2 presents ten project management success factors by Pinto and Slevin (1988b) in determining what constitutes project success factors. Though this table plays down the skills and competencies of a project as a success factor for projects however Pinto and Slevin (1988b) noted that a project will be a failure should some project mana gement characteristics like human skills, project managers administration and influencing skills not be present in the project. In the 2000s, the interest on project success changed. As against the notion that the literature was silent about the impact of the project manager toward project success (Turner and Mà ¼ller, 2005), researchers like Prabhakar (2005) and Keegan and Hartog (2004) identified effective project manager leadership as an importance success factor on projects. In Table 3, Kendra and Taplin (2004) classified project success into four categories which are micro-social, macro-social, micro-technical and macro-technical categories of which they identified behaviour, leadership and personal attributes of the project manager as a success factor under micro-social. Other studies (Lim and Mohamed, 1999, and DeCottiis and Dyer, 1979) stressed the importance of customers satisfaction and their welfare towards success measurement. In fact, Atkinson (1999) notes that any measurement criteria that assesses projects in terms of time and budget constrain without meeting up with client satisfaction will be misleading and incomplete. Tishler et al (1997) observes that customer satisfaction is supreme in assessing project success. Given the importance of the aims and objectives of any project, it was surprised that the periods identified in the findings of Jugder and Mà ¼ller (2005) did not include them as an aspect of project success. This is particularly necessary as a project that runs over budget and over time may still be considered successful if the project achieved its target. In other words, a project may meet the iron triangle success criteria of time, budget and quality, but if the aims and objectives are not achieved, such a project may be considered a failure. 2.4 THE PROJECT MANAGERS LEADERSHIP COMPETENCE AND PROJECT SUCCESS The study of Geoghegan and Dulewicz (2008) examines the impact project managers leadership competence have in achieving project success. They considered leadership as a combination of personal characteristics with those areas of competence. With this understanding, leadership can be conceived as the combination of skills and knowledge with personal characteristics that make a leader. Geoghegan and Dulewicz (2008) observe that project leadership is part of a project managers competencies. In their mind â€Å"there is a recognition that an effective project manager possesses a combination of personal characteristics such as flexibility and competencies such as problem solving† (p. 59). Similarly, Crawford (2007:14) defined competence as â€Å"encompassing knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours that contributes to effective performance of a task or job role†. Turner and Mà ¼ller (2005) added that competence includes personal characteristics, knowledge and skills. A P roject managers competence therefore can be perceived as the combination of knowledge and skills and core personality characteristics that necessitate superior results (Crawford, 2007). Rees et al (1996) noted that effective project managers appear to be averagely intelligent and possess problem solving skill than non-effective project managers. Dulewics and Higgs (2003) identified four leadership performances which include cognitive, behavioural, emotional and motivational competencies. They went further to suggest that managerial performance is defined by three competencies which are intellectual (IQ) managerial skill (MQ) and Emotional (EQ) competencies. Again, they developed a leadership competence model with fifteen leadership competences in Table 4. These fifteen leadership dimensions were classified under three major leadership competencies of IQ, MQ and EQ. On their part Mà ¼ller and Turner (2007) found out that the ability to lead and technical knowledge are important aspects of project manager competence which are necessarily displayed based on the nature of a particular project. Geoghegan and Dulewiczs, (2008) findings suggests that there is a significant relationship between a project managers leadership competence and project success. Their research suggest that project managers who possess high problem solving acumen are better suited for the empowerment and development of their colleagues, while project managers who are high in managing resources will be effective in budgeting. Geoghegan and Dulewicz (2008) also indicated that managerial competence contributes most significantly towards successful projects, by influencing project team. Other research (Crawford, 2001: Crawford, 2007) have equally linked project managers leadership competencies to project success and has gone further to identify a project manager as a success fact or for projects. Under micro-social dimensions of project success, Kendra and Taplin (2004) identified project managers competence and skills as a success factor. Although as succinctly enunciated in reviewed literature, the project manager possesses some competencies which are a sine qua non for successful project delivery, there does not seem to be a clear cut consensus on what these competencies are, as different researchers have identified different competencies that make project leaders. Furthermore, most researchers could not come to terms with the study of Geoghegan and Dulewicz (2008) that there is any relation between a project managers competence and project success. The view of these researchers is that the use of right techniques and tools assures the achievement of successful projects (Crawford, 2007). This implies that project managers with their technical knowledge and emotional intelligent make no contribution towards the success of projects so far as the right tools are deployed in managing projects (Crawford, 2007). This is in line with some believes about project management as presented by Mà ¼ller and Turner (2007c) which are: the project managers competence with his leadership style is not a success factor on projects; secondly, any project manager is capable of managing any project. Similarly, going through the literature, Mà ¼ller and Turner (2007c:3) further stated that â€Å"the project success literature studiously ignores the project manager, and his or her competence or leadership style as a potential success factor on projects†. Furthermore, Anderson et al (1987) saw the importance of personal characteristics of a project manager like his An Improvement in Project Leadership Skills An Improvement in Project Leadership Skills 1.0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Though project managers have placed client needs and demands at a priority, client expectations, and the increase in global competition, as well as the enormous impact projects have on firms, have led to a further increasing demand for the use of more effective leadership skills that can assist project managers in project team leadership (Zimmerer and Yasin, 1998). Project management involves project monitoring and supervision that is global in nature, involving projects with team members from diverse professional backgrounds, cultures, languages, and nations. Again, project management does not just involve the management of people, but also time and material resources (Veal 2004). This calls for vital strategic planning, and the management of resources for effective project management delivery. The complexities in present day projects require not just management abilities, but also an improvement in project leadership skills and competencies (Zimmerer and Yasin, 1998). 1.2 ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT Leadership, according to Jago (1982), is the application of non-coercive influence in directing the activities of individual members of an organised group in an effort to achieving the groups objectives. Leadership in this context is considered in relation to some qualities and characteristics of those who successfully implement such influences. In the context of project management, leadership can be seen as a process undertaken by an organisation in taking responsibility of team members who work with the project manager toward the achievement of project aims (Cleland, 1995). A project managers leadership skills and competencies have become necessary in harnessing the activities of the entire project stakeholders; as a result, this has led to conception of his leadership skills as an important aspect of project control (Barber and Warns, 2005). This is particularly important given the fact that though the project manager uses skilled manpower, material resources, as well as other app ropriate methods when embarking on projects, some projects do run overtime, over budget, or suffer failure in the achievement of the particular project goal (Barber and Warns, 2005). Using appropriate leadership skills, a project manager is able to forestall such eventualities where and when possible, and redirect the efforts of the team members toward attaining the desired project objectives. His ability to lead human resources associated with the project shows the leadership excellence as regards defining the project scope, time, cost management, quality and communication (Cleland, 1995). For this reason, therefore, a project manager continuously needs to develop appropriate leadership skills; competencies and styles needed down the different stages of the projects lifecycle. It implies that for a successful project delivery, the project manager needs to demonstrate not just an appropriate technical knowhow, but also a show of effective administrative and leadership skills (Burke, 2007). The question then arises as to what the skills and competencies are, that are considered essential for present day competent project managers (Ingason and Jonasson, 2009), in the delivery of projects. In the past, technical competence was taken to be the required skill that a project manager should possess in order to lead projects to success (Zimmerer and Yasin, 1998). But in contemporary times, team building, motivation (Jacques et al, 2008), vision, management, and communication (Barber and Warn, 2005), have all been identified as being part of the necessary skills and competencies a project manager needs to cultivate for effective delivery of projects. While the issue of project leadership has been the subject of so many research endeavours (Cleland, 1995, Washbush and Clements, 1999; Prabhakar, 2005; Jacques et al, 2008) a relatively fewer other researchers have focused on the leadership skills and competencies appropriate for a project managers use in leading the project team members, and the impact they have in the management of projects (Turner and Mà ¼ller, 2005; Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008). Majority of research endeavours in this area have considered the idea that a project managers application of leadership skills in projects lead to the successful delivery of projects and this has prompted the assessment of the factors that matter in his ability to utilise available human and material resources, and also lead and manage the project team, and other stakeholders. Other research works (Turner and Muller, 2005; Pinto and Trailer, 1998), however, recognise the importance of a project managers leadership skills when managing p rojects, but do not explicitly link these skills and competencies that characterise a project manager, as necessary for successful management of the project. This, therefore, forms the bulk of the debate that academic scholars in this area have preoccupied themselves. A key area of this debate concerns the fact that some relevant literature materials (Crawford, 2007; Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008) that attached great importance to the leadership skills and competencies of a project manager have further identified a project manager as a success factor for projects. The view of these project management pundits is that project success can be a possible result of the application of the attributes of a project manager during project management. This is achieved with the project managers communication, technical and motivational skills, and a host of other skills and competencies that allow him successful lead the project team members toward the achievement of the project goal. On an opposite vein, a few other project management scholars did not view a project manager as a success factor for projects (Pinto and Slevin, 1998; Turner and Mà ¼ller, 2005). This group of project management scholars observe that the use of appropriate tools and techniques is what counts in the realization of project success. This presents an implication which denotes that the leadership skills of a project manager make no additional impact in project performance. A particular literature endeavour that has significantly dealt with the issue of the present study is the work of Turner and Mà ¼ller (2005). Though their findings suggest that the literature does not view a project manager and his leadership competencies as a success factor for projects, they, however, recommended that for this argument to be resolved, the question of a project managers leadership skills and competencies, and the question of possible impact in the achievement of successful project management should be measured. As a result of this recommendation, this research investigates the views expressed in other project management literature, on the impact leadership skills and competencies of a project manager have in the management of projects. To this end, there would be an investiga tion into what constituted project management success factors in the project management history, especially during the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This effort is realised by conducting some in-depth interviews and exploring some relevant literature at these periods to identify their arguments on what constituted project success factors, and to ascertain the place of a project manager and his or her leadership skills and competencies in project management history. 1.3 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES The purpose of this research is to determine if a project managers leadership skills and competencies can act as a catalyst in bringing about successful project performance. In this context, therefore, this research tries to determine whether the application of effective leadership skills and competencies can impact on the management of projects towards the achievement of a quality and successful project performance. This will involve implementing the recommendation of the research of Turner and Muller (2005) by evaluating what constitutes project success factors to ascertain if a project manager is considered as a project management success factor, using the project management literature works and semi-structured interview. Also, contributing to the existing body of knowledge on the impact of a project managers leadership skills and competencies in project management, the objectives, as derived from the aim of this research are: To determine the leadership skills and competencies available for a project managers use in the management of projects. To critically examine the impact of the application of a project managers leadership skills and competencies in project delivery. To determine if a project manager is a project management success factor. 1.4 RESEARCH STRUCTURE This research begins with a critical review of some recent debates in the project management literature on arguments relating to leadership styles, skills and competencies appropriate for a project manager in chapter 2. It goes further to review the ideas of project management pundits on the impact these leadership skills and competencies have while managing projects. It also investigates the contribution of leadership to project managers especially as more and more project management scholars lay emphasis on project managers developing leadership skills for a better management of projects. Chapter 3 presents the research design and the methodology used in the anchorage of this dissertation for the achievement of its aim and objectives encapsulated in a six layer research onion model presented in figure 4. This chapter begins by presenting interpretivism and induction as the philosophy and approach that engulfs this research. This chapter further highlights the use of qualitative research method and how qualitative content analysis is used in the process of data collection and analysis of the data that came mainly from the literature sources towards the development of a grounded theory for this research. To reduce the limitation that could arise from the use of literature sources alone, semi-structured interviews were used in complementing the data collected from the literature works. The time horizon and the ethical consideration in relation to data collection and analysis is equally presented in this chapter. The analysis of the data gathered is presented in chapter 4, using the methods discussed above towards the development of the grounded theory, in achieving the aim of this research. The findings of this research are presented in chapter 5, and are related to the previous findings found in the project management literature as discussed in the review of the literature in chapter two. Lastly, the limitations of this study and a recommendation for further research are also presented in this chapter. Finally, a summary of the research is presented in chapter six and this research concludes by offering some opportunities further research can anchor on. CHAPTER II 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter examines some key academic interests in the role of the project managers leadership skills and competencies for the achievement of successful project management. Reviewing the relevant body of literature on this topic, will be necessary; as it will offer an insight into relevant concerns of the research and provide the required background in addressing the research questions identified earlier on. Among the themes academic pundits in this area have shown interest in are identified in figure 1, they are: leadership styles, the project manager and project success, the project managers leadership competences and the impact of leadership in project management. This chapter critically examines these areas of interest in a wider context, and their impact in achieving successful project management. 2.1 LITERATURE SCOPE It must be noted that the study of effective leadership skills is necessary for quality project management and efficiency (Strang, 2005). A plethora of literature materials exist on the importance of leadership in the successful management of projects, but for the purpose of this study, this research will concentrate on literature sources that have direct bearing on the subject matter of the research, which are identified in figure 1. The review of the literature would encompass leadership styles as a core area in project success. It will explore leadership approaches particularly transformational leadership style used by project managers in the process of managing the human aspects of projects, namely, the project team members, and stakeholders. The concept of ‘success in project management and the project managers contributions toward the achievement of success will also be critically assessed. On the other hand, literature on the project manager and his leadership competencies will be reviewed to ascertain the viability of his leadership competencies toward increasing the chances for successful project delivery. Lastly, the body of literature on the impact of leadership in project management will consider the contribution of leadership in managing projects, by making a comparison of leadership and management in leading the project team. 2.2 LEADERSHIP STYLES The question of what makes a good leader has been an age long problem. Among prominent authors that have commented on this issue include, Plato, Machiavelli, Hobbes and Lock (Collinson, 1998). Turner and Mà ¼ller (2005) identified six main leadership theories that have been singled out as the main leadership schools over seventy years ago. These schools are: The trait school The behaviour or style school The contingency school The emotional intelligent school, and The competency school Transformational leadership school This research will be focusing mainly on transformational leadership due to the emphasis project management literature places on it in leading project members. This research will examine the impact of transformational leadership in project management. 2.2.1 Transformational leadership in project management: The literature has associated transformational leadership with those leaders that create â€Å"a shared vision of the future and a relationship between leaders and followers based on far more than just the simple exchange of rewards for compliance† (Keegan and Hartog, 2004:609). What distinguishes transformational leaders is their ability in articulating some attractive vision of the future (Hartog and Verburg, 1997). Transformational leaders exhibit self-confidence and charisma which can and do attract subordinate to those identified vision or mission (Keegan and Hartlog, 2004). Northouse (1997) indicates that transformational leadership transforms and changes individuals. He added that this sort of leadership is open to the needs of the followers. Transformational leadership has been contrasted with transactional leadership (Leban and Zulauf, 2004) which focuses on the physical and security needs of its followers (Lams ila and Ogunlana, 2008). Most commentators have agreed that transactional leadership is based on the model that there is exchange process between leaders and followers, with leaders providing reward for the subordinates compliance (Northouse, 1997; Strang, 2005: Sadler, 2003 and Jogulu and Wood, 2006). While the followers are motivated by the effect the transformational leaders have on them in terms of making them aware of the values and outcome of their goals, transactional leaders on the other hand, utilises reward in motivating their subordinate. Keegan and Hartog (2004) recently noted that leading commentators have â€Å"begun to suggest that transformational leadership may be of particular interest in the project based-context† (p. 610). These commentators continue to emphasis increasing importance of motivational and emotional features of project managers as well as the importance of project managers to instil faith and commitment to their organization as part of their role (Turner and Mà ¼ller, 2003). Research have shown that project managers are considered to be leading people from different profession and diverse culture, therefore the use of transformational leadership becomes necessary due to its emphasis on vision, inspirational and motivational role of leaders (Cleland and Ireland, 2002; Keegan and Hartog, 2004). While leading such talented professionals therefore, the emphasis has drifted from control and compliance to dedication, identification and loyalty, which are characteristic of transformational lead ership (Keegan and Hartog, 2004). The literature has identified the importance of transformational leadership in project management (Yammarino and Bass, 1990; Leban and Zulauf, 2004; Barber and Warn, 2005). This importance is identified in the continuous need for project managers to be forward thinking, constantly anticipating where things may likely go wrong in project, so that steps can be placed in anticipation towards resolving them where possible and recovery measure put in place should they not be preventable (Lewis, 2001). Similarly, Barber and Warn (2005) have identified idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation as components of transformational leadership, which enable them â€Å"to explain the big picture, anticipate events and even prevent problems† (p. 1032). In figure 2, Prabhakars (2005) research suggests that transformational leaders who inspire and motivate their followers to face the challenges of their work appeared to achieve project success. This is achieved through the relationship transformational leaders build with their subordinates using an interactive communication that forms a bond between them. Figure 2: Relationship between leadership variables and project success after Prabhakar (2005). In line with the finding of Prabhakar (2005) Leban and Zulauf (2004) suggest that â€Å"transformational project manager behaviour has a positive impact on actual project performance† (p. 561). Furthermore, they stated that transformational project management is achieved through the use of project managers who are result focused through inspiration and motivation. However, the finding of Strang (2005) shows that although the application of transformational leadership while leading project team have a tendency of fostering leader-follower relationship strong transformational leadership however, is not always required in producing effective organizational outcomes. Equally, it has been observed that while transformational leadership in project context leads to stakeholders satisfaction, the finding of Strang (2005) suggest that it does not on the other hand guarantee organizational performance. From the foregoing, it has been suggested that transformational leadership has an important influence by reshaping the way people think, which is considered an aspect of project leadership skills (Partington, 2003). 2.3 PROJECT SUCCESS AND THE PROJECT MANAGER Research has it that in the field of project management, among the few topics that are frequently discussed but rarely agreed upon is what constitutes success in project (Pinto and Slevin, 1988a). Given the fact that â€Å"the search for factors that lead to better project performance and success spans many years of research† (Dov et al, 2006:36). Table 1, presents the findings of Jugdev and Mà ¼ller (2005) which identified four periods in the history of project management and the perceptions of the factors that possibly led to achieving successful project management. Period 1: Project implementation and Handover (1960s-1980s). At this stage, simple metric such as time, cost and specifications were the yardsticks used in measuring project success because they were understood to be easy for organizational use. â€Å"Project managers focused on getting a project done, making sure it worked, and getting out the way† (Judgev and Mà ¼ller, 2005:23). Studies at this time focused on scheduling as the criteria for project success or failure, while others relied on budget and performance as the success factor (Pinto and Slevin, 1988b) and client satisfaction (Shenhar et al, 1997).The emphasis at this stage was on the effectiveness of the measures and the technical system than the behaviours of the individual members of the project (Judgev and Mà ¼ller, 2005). Period 2: CSF Lists (1980s -1990s). According Judgev and Mà ¼ller (2005) this stage was preoccupied with developing some critical success factors (CSF) lists. Cooke-Davies (2002) saw critical success factors as those â€Å"inputs to the management system that lead directly or indirectly to the success of the project or business (p.185). At this stage, the literature focused on the satisfaction of the stakeholders as what guarantees project success. At the completion of the project what matters was not job completion rather the satisfaction criterion which was â€Å"are we happy† (Judgev and Mà ¼ller, 2005). End users impacts are felt as the yardstick for success which contradicts with the period 1. Among the CSFs as the literature identified were effective communications, clear objective, scope and the use of project plan as living documents (Clarke, 1999). Judgev and Mà ¼ller (2005) further identified change management, organizational effectiveness and the alignment betwe en project management and strategic management as all part of CSFs. Period 3: CSF Frameworks (1990s -2000s). At this period, the literature questioned the concept that project success is based on stakeholders-dependent and linking success with the internal and recipient organization (Kerzner, 1987: Lester, 1998). Morris and Hough (1987) developed new framework dealing on the preconditions of project success in four categories which are: Project functionality: Does such project meet up with the financial and technical requirement. Project management: Did such project meet up with the stipulated budget, schedule and specification. Contractors commercial performance: Did the project contractors benefit in a commercial way. Project termination: Peradventure a project is cancelled, was such cancellation done reasonably and effectively. Cleland and Ireland (2002) approached the issue of project success from two points of view, first, project success should be measured in view of meeting the performance objectives (cost, time and scope), and secondly it could be measured using the impact of such project on the strategic mission of the firm. Period 4: strategic project management (21st century). At this period, project success has been linked to many factors than just one common mission like organizational benefit, product success and team development (Atkinson, 1999 and Baccarini, 1999). Equally CSFs at this period incorporated â€Å"senior management commitment to provide the vision, strategy and sponsorship† (Judgev and Mà ¼ller, 2005:28) and such success factor relate to the organization including the external environment. Judgev and Mà ¼ller (2005) indicates that most recent literature have identified four necessary but not sufficient criteria for success that need to be in place for projects to be successfully managed, which are: Success criteria need to be agreed on with the project stakeholders before embarking on project. There should be a collaborative working relationship with the project sponsor and the project manager and they should view the project as partners. There is need to empower the project manager with some sort of flexibility as to be able to deal with unforeseen circumstances, and the project sponsor should give directives on the best way of achieving project success. The project sponsor needs to show an interest in the performance of the project. Subsequent research by Turner and Mà ¼ller (2005) suggests that during 1980s, the literature grew rapidly; with different authors listing what they thought constituted project success. Surprisingly, though the literature of this time emphasised that the project manager should be competent enough to get things done well, their finding suggests that: â€Å"rarely does the literature on project success factors specifically or overtly mention project manager and his or her leadership style and competence. Perhaps the project manager does not contribute to project success. Perhaps there is something about the nature of projects and the project teams that means that their success is not dependent on the leadership style and competence of the manager† (Turner and Mà ¼ller, (2005:57). This very remark suggests that the impact of the project managers leadership style possibly do not necessarily lead to project success. Andersen et al (1987) identified some pitfalls that may hinder project success and increase project failure. These pitfalls include the method that is used to plan, organize and control projects. Baker et al (1988) saw project success as achieving the projects technical specification or mission while earning a high valued satisfaction from the client, the end user and the project team as well. They equally advocated planning as against perceiving leadership as a key factor while maximizing potential project success. Table 2 presents ten project management success factors by Pinto and Slevin (1988b) in determining what constitutes project success factors. Though this table plays down the skills and competencies of a project as a success factor for projects however Pinto and Slevin (1988b) noted that a project will be a failure should some project mana gement characteristics like human skills, project managers administration and influencing skills not be present in the project. In the 2000s, the interest on project success changed. As against the notion that the literature was silent about the impact of the project manager toward project success (Turner and Mà ¼ller, 2005), researchers like Prabhakar (2005) and Keegan and Hartog (2004) identified effective project manager leadership as an importance success factor on projects. In Table 3, Kendra and Taplin (2004) classified project success into four categories which are micro-social, macro-social, micro-technical and macro-technical categories of which they identified behaviour, leadership and personal attributes of the project manager as a success factor under micro-social. Other studies (Lim and Mohamed, 1999, and DeCottiis and Dyer, 1979) stressed the importance of customers satisfaction and their welfare towards success measurement. In fact, Atkinson (1999) notes that any measurement criteria that assesses projects in terms of time and budget constrain without meeting up with client satisfaction will be misleading and incomplete. Tishler et al (1997) observes that customer satisfaction is supreme in assessing project success. Given the importance of the aims and objectives of any project, it was surprised that the periods identified in the findings of Jugder and Mà ¼ller (2005) did not include them as an aspect of project success. This is particularly necessary as a project that runs over budget and over time may still be considered successful if the project achieved its target. In other words, a project may meet the iron triangle success criteria of time, budget and quality, but if the aims and objectives are not achieved, such a project may be considered a failure. 2.4 THE PROJECT MANAGERS LEADERSHIP COMPETENCE AND PROJECT SUCCESS The study of Geoghegan and Dulewicz (2008) examines the impact project managers leadership competence have in achieving project success. They considered leadership as a combination of personal characteristics with those areas of competence. With this understanding, leadership can be conceived as the combination of skills and knowledge with personal characteristics that make a leader. Geoghegan and Dulewicz (2008) observe that project leadership is part of a project managers competencies. In their mind â€Å"there is a recognition that an effective project manager possesses a combination of personal characteristics such as flexibility and competencies such as problem solving† (p. 59). Similarly, Crawford (2007:14) defined competence as â€Å"encompassing knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours that contributes to effective performance of a task or job role†. Turner and Mà ¼ller (2005) added that competence includes personal characteristics, knowledge and skills. A P roject managers competence therefore can be perceived as the combination of knowledge and skills and core personality characteristics that necessitate superior results (Crawford, 2007). Rees et al (1996) noted that effective project managers appear to be averagely intelligent and possess problem solving skill than non-effective project managers. Dulewics and Higgs (2003) identified four leadership performances which include cognitive, behavioural, emotional and motivational competencies. They went further to suggest that managerial performance is defined by three competencies which are intellectual (IQ) managerial skill (MQ) and Emotional (EQ) competencies. Again, they developed a leadership competence model with fifteen leadership competences in Table 4. These fifteen leadership dimensions were classified under three major leadership competencies of IQ, MQ and EQ. On their part Mà ¼ller and Turner (2007) found out that the ability to lead and technical knowledge are important aspects of project manager competence which are necessarily displayed based on the nature of a particular project. Geoghegan and Dulewiczs, (2008) findings suggests that there is a significant relationship between a project managers leadership competence and project success. Their research suggest that project managers who possess high problem solving acumen are better suited for the empowerment and development of their colleagues, while project managers who are high in managing resources will be effective in budgeting. Geoghegan and Dulewicz (2008) also indicated that managerial competence contributes most significantly towards successful projects, by influencing project team. Other research (Crawford, 2001: Crawford, 2007) have equally linked project managers leadership competencies to project success and has gone further to identify a project manager as a success fact or for projects. Under micro-social dimensions of project success, Kendra and Taplin (2004) identified project managers competence and skills as a success factor. Although as succinctly enunciated in reviewed literature, the project manager possesses some competencies which are a sine qua non for successful project delivery, there does not seem to be a clear cut consensus on what these competencies are, as different researchers have identified different competencies that make project leaders. Furthermore, most researchers could not come to terms with the study of Geoghegan and Dulewicz (2008) that there is any relation between a project managers competence and project success. The view of these researchers is that the use of right techniques and tools assures the achievement of successful projects (Crawford, 2007). This implies that project managers with their technical knowledge and emotional intelligent make no contribution towards the success of projects so far as the right tools are deployed in managing projects (Crawford, 2007). This is in line with some believes about project management as presented by Mà ¼ller and Turner (2007c) which are: the project managers competence with his leadership style is not a success factor on projects; secondly, any project manager is capable of managing any project. Similarly, going through the literature, Mà ¼ller and Turner (2007c:3) further stated that â€Å"the project success literature studiously ignores the project manager, and his or her competence or leadership style as a potential success factor on projects†. Furthermore, Anderson et al (1987) saw the importance of personal characteristics of a project manager like his

Training Environment :: essays research papers

Using your Training Environment Tips for survival Your training environment is the most essential and important element of your presentation. It is the difference between a good presentation and one that will keep the participants asking for more. The five most important features of your training environment will be: 1. White Board 2. Flipchart 3. Projector 4. Space 5. Body Language A good presenter uses his training environment in the most effective and coordinative way possible. Here are a few tips that will help you use your training environment in a more effective manner, while giving presentations. White Board The white board is your medium of writing and projecting the presentation. In the modern world, white boards have revolutionarized and have added features in built such as a play, pause and stop button for you presentations and images. They can be connected to your projector to run your presentation more effectively and easily. But as much as technology may change, the basics of the white board will stay the same, and they are: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Leave margins on the corners of the board. Do not fill up the board too much especially around the corners. Keep a spacing of 5 inches from the left/right and top/bottom corners of the board. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Always use a non-permanent marker on the white board. This ensures easy reusability of the board at various levels. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The color of the markers should be bright and solid. Do not use faint markers as they are not clearly visible. The purpose is easy visibility, not the formality of writing. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The letters should be at least  ½ â€Å" high and should be in capital letters. Caps case is easier to read. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use a variety of color markers for highlighting and adding variety to what is written on the board. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When using the white board as the projection screen make sure is cleaned and has no patches of ink. If you have written over the projection on the board then ensure that you wipe it before proceeding to the next slide. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Do not stand in front of the board if there is something written on it. Flip Chart The flip chart is your medium of that extra unit of writing and displaying your points. It is often termed as the trainers â€Å"companion†. The flip chart is mostly used as a tool for writing or illustrating points that are a part of the presentation, but may or may not be a part of the power point slides. Some key tips for using the flip chart are:

Global Warming Essays -- Environment Global Warming Climate Change

Global Warming Climate change is neither new nor unusual. Throughout the history of the earth, the average surface temperature, climate and greenhouse gas concentrations have changed, sometimes gradually other times quite sharply. During the past 10,000 years the earth has been in an interglacial period with a fairly stable climate, surface temperature, and greenhouse gas concentration1. The problem that has arisen in recent times is when scientists analyze the past 150 years, especially the last 50. Scientists have found an increased greenhouse gas concentration, making the 20th century the hottest in the last 10,000 years. Although the earth has undergone periodic changes known as global cooling and global warming, today’s global warming is unique, due to human influences. The greenhouse effect is essentially gasses in the atmosphere trapping heat, rather like a car window does in the summer. The major heat trapping gasses found in the atmosphere are; CO2 and water vapor- which are found in large quantity, 03(ozone), ch4(methane), and N2O(nitrous oxide)-which are better heat trappers but found in smaller quantity, CFC’s and PFC’s- which are very potent and destroy ozone. The rapid elevation of these gasses in the past fifty years have been the cause for concern of scientists calling it a global warming problem. Global warming is a natural process as well as a human assisted process. Solar flares and sunspots along with natural elevation of greenhouse gasses due to volcanic activety are the natural causes for global warming. Dr. Judy Lean, a leading astrophysicist, looked at global warming trends from 1860 to the present day. Her research has found from 1860 to 1970, global warming was largely due to natural sources. But from 1970 to the present natural sources accounted for only one-third the increase while human influence accounted for the remaining two-thirds of the increased greenhouse effect. The increase in greenhouse gasses from human sources comes from a variety of things. Elevated Co2 levels, which have been increasing at a rate of 0.5% per year, largely come from the burning of fossil fuels(70-75%), especially coal. Deforestation and plant burning account for the remainder. Increased Methane and Nitrous oxide in the atmosphere are mostly due to agriculture; rice patties, cattle, termites and decomposition of dead... ...ns in order to stop the increase. In order to slow the increase, the efficient use of fossil fuels must be adapted. Natural gas gives off very little co2 and methane if burned properly. Deforestation must also be stopped in order to give natural co2 scrubbers, plants, a chance to aid in the process. Governmental programs have also been implemented. A carbon tax has been considered along with the passing of the 1990 Clean Air Act, aimed at lowering emissions and cleaning air pollution. On a world wide scale, the Kyoto Accord in 1997, in which 159 nations agreed to work together to decrease Co2 emissions by 5.5% by 2012. The United States agreed, since it accounts for 25% of the worlds total emissions by 1990 figures, to cut its emissions by 7%. Global warming is still a major issue in world and U.S. politics. Conservatives argue for more market-orientated solutions, resulting in the imposition of taxes, resulting in higher prices for environment polluting goods. Liberals on the other hand advocate stiffer industry regulation and more direct controls. Any action taken, whatever the ideology, can only help to solve an increasing problem but at what cost to the consumer?

Discuss the dramatic significance of Hamlet Scene 1 Act 1 Essay

The play ‘Hamlet’ was written in tempestuous times for England. There was death caused by ‘The Plague’ and poverty was rampant. Much importance surrounded the outward support of the monarch, Elizabeth. During her reign, religion caused divisions and factions of the Protestant church considered the theatre as sinful, amoral perhaps. In his plays, Shakespeare uses his understanding of humanity to entertain by addressing love, power, loyalty, honour and friendship. These values address unchanging aspects that touch us even today. ‘Hamlet’ is intended to portray the importance of the monarchy and the insecurity created by the threat of a foreign invasion – the message being that anything can happen to anyone. This then is the underlying setting of the theme for ‘Hamlet’ – taking place on a dark winter night, creating suspense, intrigue and providing entertainment to an otherwise deprived audience. In the opening, Act 1 and Scene 1 of ‘Hamlet’, the playwright, William Shakespeare, uses several dramatical devices to influence the crowd’s moods, behaviour and attitude towards the play; this is known as psychological audience manipulation. Shakespeare cleverly uses one – dimensional characters to deliver background information to the audience in a more entertaining style. The setting – the guard – platform of the Castle, on a dark, wintry cold night at midnight further intensifies the dramatic effect. ‘Who’s there? ‘ – and ‘Quiet guard’ – these statements imply a foreboding. Immediately the audience is captivated, particularly when one associates midnight with evil. The statements: ‘Tis now struck twelve’ and ‘Bitter cold’ further add to the dramatic mood that is being created. Francisco’s admission: ‘I am sick at heart’ has a negative connotation, suggesting feelings of uneasiness. Bernardo’s reply: ‘ Bid them make haste ‘ – he is obviously scared of something. A reference to loyalty to the Sovereign follows, ‘Friends to this ground’ and ‘Liegemen to the Dane’- here Shakespeare uses a manipulative technique to address the importance of remaining patriotic – an aspect of life everyone can identify with. Again it is suggested that they are engulfed by darkness and they can only see that which is really close up to them: ‘ A piece of him’. By extending his hand, Horatio reassures the guards that he is a friend not a foe. There are sinister undertones at the outset of the scene, which effectively serve to introduce the tenor of the play. Despite this, there is a hint of humour and sarcasm by Horatio : ‘What, has his thing appear’d again to-night? ‘ An air of intrigue is created by this: it is not known what it is is actually being referred to. It is Marcellus who then goes on to explain to the audience what Horatio’s views are: ‘And will not let belief take hold of him’ – this means that he will not allow himself to believe anything of a supernatural nature. He has been invited to see if: ‘This apparition come’, but remains unyielding in his opinion: ‘ Tush, tush ’twill not appear’. Bernardo tries to convince Horatio, ‘Again assail your ears’. Another example is: ‘That are so fortified against our story’. Here he is openly addressing Horatio’s incredulity on the subject of the spectre. Bernardo recounts how the Ghost appeared and that the ‘Yond same star’ was in the same place, when it had originally appeared, adding to the drama and heralding its reappearance. An essentially frightened audience is introduced to the Ghost. ‘ Like the King that’s dead’. Even the originally sceptical Horatio is outwardly scared now, raising the intensity of the drama. ‘It harrows me with fear and wonder:’ he uses strong language. It therefore fell upon Horatio, who was encouraged by the other guards, to address the Ghost in order to attest that this spectre was real. The well spoken Horatio, the scholar states:’ What art thou that usurp’st this time of night’ – by this he suggests that the Ghost has upset the peace of the night and has taken ‘ That fair and warlike form’. By this reference, the audience is psychologically manipulated into feeling admiration for the dead king. He further challenges: ‘ By heaven I charge thee, speak! ‘ The scene continues and Horatio admits to believing because he has seen with the: ‘True avouch of mine own eyes’. Horatio recalls the previous battle with Denmark and Norway: this is political propaganda, which is the strong theme for the play, providing essential background information. This also casts a positive reflection of the previous king: ‘When he the ambitious Norway combated’ – this already gives the audience a positive reflection on the deceased King, as we are told of his bravery, ‘He smote the sledded Polacks on the ice. ‘ It also suggests that the king may have some unfinished business and that is why he has returned as the Ghost three times. Horatio warns the audience that: ‘This bodes some strange eruption to our state, ‘ moreover, this is a warning of the inevitability that: Denmark may be on the brink of war. There are other suggestions of this: ‘Daily cast of brazen cannon. ‘ This infers that people are working round the clock. All this creates a sense of apprehension. Shakespeare attempts to draw a parallel with ancient Rome: Horatio now eloquently delivers his views and this has a religious connotation. Examples of this are made by: ‘In the most high and palmy state of Rome’ and ‘ Was sick almost to doomsday with eclipse’ and ‘As harbingers preceding still the fates’. The conjecture here is that the Ghost is the forerunner of what is yet to come and also is connected with the Bible, as was prophesised that Christ would come to judge the living and the dead. This is effective use of imagery and is symbolic would most certainly create a growing sense of fear in the audience. Another biblical reference with far reaching effects is: ‘The cock crows’: this suggests betrayal and moreover, ‘And at his warning’ is ominous. There is dramatic impetus by Horatio and he uses aggressive language on the Ghost’s reappearance: ‘I’ll cross it, though it blast me. Stay illusion. ‘ He asks ‘ If thou art privy to thy country’s fate’- can the Ghost share a secret, any light on what lies ahead for Denmark? Despite the audience not having being introduced to Hamlet, we are psychologically manipulated into feeling sorry for him and empathise with him. In the indirect reference made to him we understand that Horatio suggests that they tell young Hamlet of the appearance of the Ghost. We learn that there is staunch support for Hamlet: ‘As needful in our loves, fitting our duty? ‘ In the space of a few days, sadly, his father has passed away: ‘The majesty of buried Denmark ‘. His rightful inheritance has been taken from him: ‘ So by his father lost’ which suggests that he is in mourning and ‘This, I take it is the main motive of our preparations’ – to take back that which was theirs. This automatically gives the audience someone to support and â€Å"root for† in ‘Young Hamlet’ as the play unfolds and we learn more of his personal story. This is linked to another theme that the audience can identify with: family values. The element of mystery and foreboding are inherently present in Act One, Scene One and is further personified in the form of an apparition, ‘This apparition come. ‘ The contemporary audience that this was aimed at, being more religiously aware than the public nowadays, would have been fearful of the spectre and would have made links to the devil and hell, gaining the audience’s full attention. By the spreading of its arms, it has connotations to Jesus Christ, creating a sombre aura. They are encouraged to believe that the Ghost is an omen: ‘ That this portentous figure’, is a sign that they are ready for battle. Essentially, the mood further reflects insecurity as Denmark may be on the verge of war. A clever technique Shakespeare uses serves to encourage loyalty to the monarch at the time, ‘Long live the King’. Therefore, he has put his political views forward successfully and with discretion. The Ghost exits, leaving everyone none the wiser as to the reason for its apparition. The first Act and Scene allows for speculation and would have created a sense of dramatic anticipation, keeping the audience on the edge of their seats, ready to see what will ensue in the next scene.

Democratic Education Essay

Democratic Education should be a mainstream style of teaching, and should be taught specifically to anyone aspiring to become any type of successful instructor. Everywhere you go the world is constantly changing, people adapt, time ticks away, and the days come and go, every waking moment is progression to the future. Why is the one thing that we as a society depend on for survival going backwards? Our education system and the way we educate children is the only tool we as a society use to ensure our existence, think of the world as a well oiled machine. If you neglect certain parts, yes maybe it will keep working for a short while. Eventually the machine will fall apart because of the mistreating and lack of or poor maintenance, if we keep neglecting our education system by turning a blind eye to the type of educators we give teaching credentials to or the way our current teachers or professors are instruction our future, then our existence is headed for an abrupt halt. Schools need to embrace interesting, interactive-learning environments throughout the curriculum. â€Å"If you do not want to do something, you will not, period.† This thought means if someone is in a place that does not at least entertain the senses, let alone stimulate the mind then why even waste the time to just be physically be present? By doing that it wastes money, and more importantly the teacher and the students time. Democratic education as a teaching style is based on â€Å"affirmative authority without disrespect of freedom†; Democratic Education, by bell hooks. Authoritative guidance with inspiring, limitless, encouragement should be the goal of every type of educational course offered in the United States. We need to input this style of teaching into our aspiring teachers required classes to graduate at any institution or university across the country. We need democratic education because this type of teaching inspires the students, just because someone passes a test or any kind of written exam does not determine someones intelligence. The definition of the term intelligence, according to www.google.com, means the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. This applies to institutions and their instructors because if a pupil is not taught how to apply these skills he or she has been taught how does this apply to the fast-pace times that we live in today? The answer is, it does not. Democratic education benefits the entire classroom rather than just a select few because of the more upbeat style of teaching. The beauty of democratic education is that it can also be incorporated with the old style of a more text-geared curriculum as well. It has the potential to improve teaching as a profession because it would lengthen the required courses to become a teacher, therefore narrowing the number of instructors produced. With that being said, the teaching salaries can improve because of the new demand for this productive style of teaching that K-12 schools would require the employed instructors to have completed during their college career(s). Our future generations upbringing needs to be updated according to the new age that we live in today. Democratic education needs to be a mainstream style of teaching, not for our benefit, but for the future of the precious world that you and I share. This is not a type of thing to be organized and implemented to help certain individuals succeed but for everyone, we need to teach our children that as a country we are a collective, and as individuals we are our own. Democratic education be used as another tool to help us educate the country and create a more successful tomorrow.

Callaway Golf Company- Manufacturing Inventory

Answers to Case 6: Callaway Golf Company-Manufacturing Inventory. a. The costs expected to be in the raw materials inventory are: costs of materials such as wood, iron, plastic and/or optic fiber that have yet to be placed in production. The costs expected to be in the work in process inventory are the cost of materials placed in production plus the labor and allocated overhead utilized so far. The costs expected to be in the finish goods inventory are the materials, labor and allocated overhead incurred to make the finished products on hand. b.Inventories are net of an estimated allowance for obsolete or unmarketable inventory. c. i. The Reserve for obsolete inventories’ account does not appear on Callaway’s financial statements because it has already been subtracted off the inventory account. The gross amount of inventory at the end of 2006 is $247,795. 00, and at the end of 2007 is $232,872. 00 Of the $20,129. 00 of reserve for obsolete inventory, $6,537. 90, is attr ibutable to raw materials inventory, 154. 99 is attributable to work-in-process inventory, and $13,436. 11 to finished goods inventory. d.JE to record activity in reserve for obsolete inventory during 2007 (in thousands) Cost of Sales$ 12,182. 00 Provision for obsolete inventory12,182. 00 Provision for obsolete inventory 9,368. 00 Inventory 9,368. 00 e. i. The cost of finished goods sold in 2007 was $619,186. 00 The cost of finished goods transferred from work-in-process in 2007 was$247,109 iii. The cost of raw materials transferred to work-in-process in 2007 was $90,982. 00 The cost of raw materials purchased during 2007 was $87,369. 00 v. The amount of cash disbursed for raw-material purchases during 2007 was $54,350. 00. ($95,297. 00-$40,947. 00) Read also: Advantages and Disadvantages of Administrative Management

Risk assessment in auditing of financial statements Research Paper

Risk assessment in auditing of financial statements - Research Paper Example SAS No. 109 was issued in 2006 along with seven other auditing standards. What’s important about these eight (8) auditing standards was their common theme – adherence to risk assessment and the audit response to such an assessment. These eight auditing standards were expected to bring about major changes and to give guidelines and guidance when auditing nonpublic entities (McConnell and Schweiger, 2007). The primary objective of these eight standards was to improve the conduct of audit by the external auditor through requiring the auditors to acquire a deeper understanding of a company’s internal controls so that the auditor is in a better position to â€Å"identify risks of material misstatement of financial statements† (McConnell and Schweiger, 2007). With this primary objective, the issuers hope that there will be better â€Å"linkages between assessed risks and the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures performed in response to those risks† (McConnell and Schweiger, 2007). The first paragraph of SAS No. 109 established the provisions and guidelines for obtaining â€Å"an understanding of the entity and its environment†¦to assess the risk of material misstatement of the financial statements† (AICPA, AU Section 314, 2006). The second paragraph provides brief summaries of the specific sections of the standard. The subsequent paragraphs expound on the summaries provided in the second paragraph. Paragraph 3 lists â€Å"examples of considerations for establishing a sufficient understanding† of the entity (AICPA, AU Section 314, 2006). Paragraph 4 calls on external auditors to â€Å"use professional judgment to determine the extent of the understanding required of the entity and its environment† (AICPA, AU Section 314, 2006). Certain paragraphs of SAS No. 109 outline and explain the risk assessment procedures (i.e, inquiries, analytical procedures and observation) an auditor needs to perform to obtain such an understanding. The