Effects of Copyright on the Consumption Music

Effects of Copyright on the Consumption Music The aim of this dissertation is to understand the effects of copyright on the consumption and acquisition of music online. With a focus on Feels Like Free services such as Spotify as well as illegal file sharing services, research into the copyright issues surrounding the debate present a picture of how music is being consumed at present. Building on notable works and theories of research in the area {} the dissertation supplies evidence supporting the continuing dominance of labels as right-holders in the new digital era. With one-on-one interviews with emerging artists at the forefront of digital music as well as group interviews with consumers a convergence of opinion on key points provides an insight into the effectiveness of current digital music distribution services as well as the enforcement and enforceability of current copyright laws. Introduction This dissertation focusses on the challenges of distributing digital music in an era of unprecedented web use. Access to digital media is increasingly a part of peoples every day lives and the issues surrounding access to content and the legal implications therein are the subject of much debate. It is natural that the rights holders and their representatives would assume a position protecting their legal rights and the cases of pursuance of both individual and commercial rights infringers are well documented, however some say copyright law is dated (Negroponte, 1995) and beyond the task of policing the digital frontier of music distribution. This dissertation investigates the effect of copyright on audience and artist attitudes to digital music distribution in both legal and illegal forms. Using relevant literature and established studies it addresses the benefits of the chosen research for this investigation and provides results giving evidence for the various claims and counter cla ims made on both sides of the copyright argument. In doing so it is intended that my results will give a picture of current distribution methods and their ability to deal with copyright as well as rights holders ability to enforce it in an increasingly digitised age. By gathering evidence using one-to-one interviews with two emerging artists as well as consumer interviews conducted at group level I am able to establish the artists interaction with the process of copyright and the extent to which it alters their distribution of music whilst also engaging the audience in debate about their understanding and adherence to the existing issues surround accessing digital music. The involvement of both artist and audience provides a unique opportunity to pinpoint the present effect of the existing systems of music distribution and the copyright protection available. Digital Music Copyright At the crux of the debate surrounding digital music distribution is the issue of copyright and the infringement thereof. Arguments both for and against the current system of rights ownership and management are well documented and some clear division between the opinions of those who hope to gain capital from the ownership of rights and those who wish to produce and consume digital music is revealed. The representative bodies existing to support the rights of the artist , such as the BPI (British Phonographic Industry) and the RIAA (Recording Industry Association of America) have staunch views on the use of their intellectual property and defined by the BPI, copyright in its current form can be surmised as follows: Copyright is the foundations which the music business is built. In its simplest terms, it is a form of intellectual property and, as such, gives the creator or the owner/ author of that work exclusive rights over how it is published, distributed and adapted. (BPI [online] 2009) The collective gusto of the recording industry to enforce their stance on what they see as a critical issue to the music business has led to much bad publicity and a galvanisation of some copyright infringers as a group with a serious social point to make. Kembrew McLeod (2005) agrees that infringement of copyrighted material online presents a significant problem for the monopoly held by the industry giants, even going as far as to view this as a positive consequence of file sharing and distribution. Arguing in favour of a diminished corporate monopoly, McLeod uses examples of successes for smaller independent artists, helped in part by the evolution of media distribution methods available to cut out the middle-man. With both artist and audience interviews revealing a symRobhy for McLeodÊ ¼s statements, most participants demonstrated a sophisticated understanding of the possible advantages that new distribution methods offer smaller/less established artists, who often work outsi de of the boundaries of the established music industry. Williamson Cloonan (2007) accuse the BPI of blurring its distinction between the ‘interests of British record companies which it claims to represent with a wider definition of the ‘music business . The process of recording, distributing and marketing music is one element of the music industry but its inferred connection to grassroots music of all levels seems to be the bone of contention, as is borne out in my group research. The strength of language words and aggressive tone of both the RIAA and BPI in dealing with infingers, combined with the appropriation of the wider music industry for moral grounds (Williamson Cloonan, 2003, p. 305-7) adds to a misunderstanding regarding what exactly the music industry is and how it affects users access to media. There is an obvious disparity in opinion on either side of the debate surrounding copyright law, with the nature of what copyright represents and who it protects a nd particularly how it is relevant to new digital models of distribution and consumption open to much debate. These diverging opinions are likely to have an impact on how consumers and artists understand the issues within this field, and clearly how they relate and react to them. Media Access The history and development of studying audiences and their consumption habits is by now highly sophisticated and the subject of much debate and research. Using the work of others as a guide as well as theory and research my aim is to understand how audiences are accessing digital content and if their understanding of the legality of so doing , alters how they interact with the content. Longhurst (2007) observes that the most significant contemporary change to [music consumption] is coming through downloadability (p. 205). The pervasive nature of digital consumption in todays culture is displayed throughout both artist and audience responses showing high levels of use and understanding of the medium. An RIAA commissioned report (Siwek, 2007) carried out in the United States by the Institute for Policy Innovation (IPI) suggest that online copyright infringement costs the industry $12.5 billion annually(online). It is fair to assume the the access to both legal and illegal digital musi c is affect the industry greatly but these figures are open to criticism for there bias. The research of Huang (2005) into file sharing as a means of music consumption through group interviews of college students concludes that music file sharing is now a facet of music culture from a social perspective. My studies have some support for this claim with even artists describing extensive p2p use and one actively embracing it as a means of propagation of his material. Mascheroni et al (2008) conducted a comparable ethnographic study digital television consumption. The study concludes that young viewers are capable of defining their relationship with media based on present developments in the field rather than existing paradigms and traditions, and in doing so perhaps goes some way to explain the findings of Huangs research on college students. In similar ethnographic profiling Harwood (1997) compared television viewing Robterns of different aged groups, finding that decisions are representative of perceived Ê »social identityÊ ¼. It is arguable that similar influe nces are at play in consumers interaction with digital music consumption and with the increasing convergence of digital content, user generated content, and the social influences aforementioned, copyright infringement and any repressions appear to have very marginal impact on consumption habits. Based on the highlighted works the interaction between consumers and the legal implications surrounding content access are likely to vary in line with social perception and experience led understanding of the field. The fact that the artists were so Robert about file sharing, their involvement with it and its potential for positive use, adds weight to the claim copyright regulations for digital music are past their prime and lacking in effectiveness. Unique Online Considerations Various possible explanations for the ways in which digital media access has changed consumption habits have been covered previously. Increased media access has inevitably led to increased temptation to use nodal connectivity for illegal file sharing, although if the enactment of this abuse is as widespread as the BPI and RIAA would like us to think is another matter. Borne out of this peer to peer system of file distribution new products are being brought to market that provide alternatives to illegal acquisition of content. Analysing the manner in which consumers access content and services online has led to , sophisticated modEmmang of the accessibility and demand for said content and services. AndersonÊ ¼s (2006) presents a long tail model which serves as an example of such studies. The model refers to online commercial distribution with the most popular and commercial, products at one end of the graph with the highest volume of sales. The graph extends to illustrate the alm ost limitless potential for online sales in specialist or minority markets. Fig i. Long Tail Model (Anderson, 2006) Anderson further sets forth an opinion that the broadening of potential promotion and distribution online has increasingly opened up more possibilities for for both artists and consumers. Applying the long tail theory, it is obvious that it proposes a different system of economics to the traditional retail sector. Adding to this the obvious advantages of products being available around the clock, often irrespective of regional restrictions and the idea of a new economic model is further strengthened. The ability to cover areas of minuscule interest with little additional overheads enables retailers to offer huge depth of choice as well as broadening the idea of ownership of content through streaming.. Clearly the economics of online commerce are very different to the traditional model, however the rules of engagement surrounding copyright are expected to fit both models. two is different, yet the laws of copyright remain the same. Illegal sharing of content is viewed as an infringement of rights and therefore a form of theft as attested by the RIAA. The case that eventually closed the late nineties file sharing platform Napster, as detailed first by Merriden (2001) and then Menn (2003) illustrates the ramifications and interest in the first high-profile case of file sharing. Speaking of Napster Wall states; The record companies proposed that the Napster system ripped off artists and would kill music, while they made the legal argument that Napster encouraged the infringement of copyrights they held. Napster countered by arguing that members of Napster were making fair non-commercial use of the rights already assigned with the original sale of the record that had been converted into mp3 files. (Wall 2003, p223) Continuing where the Napster litigation left off, cases between the industry and p2p networks are still widespread today, showing that the industry has moved on little in the intervening years. The Swedish prosecution and proposed imprisonment of the creators of infamous file sharing tracker The Pirate Bay (Johnson Kiss, 2009) is perhaps the highest profile case today and could be seen as the modern Napster. In an attempt to bolster the music industries grasp on digital distribution a number of new models have been brought to market., Many mobile phone operators worldwide now offer unlimited music bundles with cell contracts and the emergence of streaming services mentioned such as Last.fm and Spotify, are seen in the group interviews to have a positive influence on peoples adherence to copyright. Gerd Leonhard (with Kusek 2005 2008) is describes these services as Ê »feels like free.Ê ¼ Advertising and premium service upgrades present the creates potential for capitalisat ion of music. Spotify has been a particular success in Europe, with the BBC reporting figures that already 5% of its users have upgraded to a premium service, giving it some 320,000 users paying  £10 per month for its full offering (BBC, 2010, online). This small percentage provides and annual turnover in the region of  £38,400,000 excluding additional revenue provided by advertising, proving that Spotify is a serious force in the online distribution business without even launching fully in the United States. By looking at audience habits and interaction with both copyright and media we can see that the new media model and the traditional approach to distributing music are increasingly unable to keep up with the consumer driven demand for online services, leaving companies such as Spotify to move in and become a type of new music industry for the 21st century. The difficulty inherent to their role is that the copyright for the material they wish to distribute is often owned by o ne of their more traditional predecessors. Methodology In this chapter I offer justification for the effectiveness of my methods for the collection of audience and artist responses to their interaction with digital music copyright. I use two groups of participants; one younger (16- 25) as well as a group from an older demographic of consumers (40-65) with both groups being representative of consumers as well as two individuals representative of artists. As this study represents a small cross section of the many people who are involved in roles as both consumer and artist definitive conclusions solely gathered from my findings alone are difficult to ascertain. The value however, of conducting the comparative interview types, is the provided overview of responses, and how they interplay with the core arguments surrounding the debate. Work by Huang (2005) and Macheroni et al (2008) would suggest that younger audiences are less concerned about the implications of peer to peer sharing and thus more likely to use the distribution method. Using relative methods I build upon their work, highlighting and supporting claims by providing complimentary evidence and similar findings. HuangÊ ¼s (2005) use of groups interviews highlighted specific areas of interest with direct interaction with audience members, whilst MascheroniÊ ¼s (2008) research adopted ethnographic studies of online, as well as off line interaction in a more one to one manner. Due to the nature of copyright interaction online ethnographic study of users could be applied to researching users of file sharing services. The problem with this is the anonymity in this type of cinteraction, discussed by Watt, Lea and Spears (2002). Although there is potential for some light to be shed on how audiences share music online, it would be difficult to rationalise the reasons for this activity, providing little evidence to illuminate the reader on audience behaviour. My own studies, made use of extensive one on one interviews allowing unsigned artists a mouthpiece within the debate. The benefit of exposing the artists to the one on one interview process was expected to be a greater understanding and experience of copyright yielding technical data on the subject. This was then coupled with group based research. With guidance from Bertrand and Hughes (2005, p81), the group interviews, were expected to benefit from inter-participant discussion allowing some involved to make up in shortfalls of technical knowledge. As a well established means of audience research, group interviews can help garner natural responses from participants. It must always be considered however that these discussions do not take place in unmonitored environments and so must be viewed as having the potential to be polluted by the participants knowledge that what is being said is also being recorded. A particularly pertinent issue given the legal climate surrounding the issues covered. The legal aspect of my research may encourage participants to shy away from full, Robert answers, however the focus group environment should also foster greater candour and less inherently solicited responses than that of one on one interviews for instance (Boubour 2007) although the combination of the two means of study should have a balancing effect on the results. Research Findings Here I present the findings of my primary research investigating the interplay between copyright issues and digital music consumption. The material put forward here is the product of the two group interviews and two individual interviews with consumers and artists respectively. The discussions centred around the same key themes including the participants access to and use of digital music as well as attitudes and understanding of the related legal issues. Of particular importance for my study are responses they may have relevance towards legal the constraints and considerations surrounding the notion of digital music access. Providing the the structural basis of this chapter my aim is to discover any visible Robterns between the responses of the two types of interviewee. Consumption Listening Habits: The primary question for the interviews is one of use and involvement in digital music. It is essential to establish the extent, if any, to which the interview subjects interact with digital music content, irrespective of its origin. The following section examines participant music consumption routines and in particular, digital music consumption habits. Based on their replies, I address the stereotype that older audiences are less willing and able to undertake interaction with new delivery methods whilst isolating comparisons between the groups in other forms of music consumption. On broaching the subject of use of digital music with the older group, it was clear that most participants were involved and responsive to the means of content distribution. Many of the group cited the iPhone or iPod as an influence on their ease of access and enjoyment of digital music, proving Apple have a huge say in how this market is set to develop. either using mp3 players or their mobile phone to co nsume digital music. When the group was asked if they had access to a digital music player the response was as follows, Howard: Of course IÊ ¼ve had mp3 phones for a good 5 years now and players for a bit longer. Dominic: Yeah me too I would say, not the players but the phones, I use an iPhone for everything now. Howard: I still use my player for jogging though, I dont like to be bothered by phone calls but I still want my music with me. Most made some use of access to digital music on a regular basis. This helps to dispel the myth of a generation gap regarding digital media use as alluded to in the work of Mascheroni et al (2008). Although this establishes a commonality in usage of devices we are yet to establish meaningful connections between access and consumption habits. In the older group. The concept of digital music consumption representing the mainstay of their listening habits produced varied responses. For the older group the response was as follows: Dominic: For the car or the house I spose real music, sorry I should say CDs and stuff I spose, real music is normally what I go for. Robert: Yeah the same really. This is similar to the attitudes of both artists interviewed. Biometrix: Yeah its really all about vinyl for me but that normally means I have to rip the vinyl if I want to listen to it on my phone or anything like that Gecko: I collect all sorts of CDs and records, when we go on tour I normally come back with a pile of discs Ive either bought or been given. With the artists and the older audience still actively engaged in the acquisition and collation of music it is clear that there is still a space for tangible products within the music industry. Such observations are notably absent when dealing with the younger of the group studies. In this group there was evidence of a fractured landscape of media access with no commonly held method of consuming music. Youtube, Spotify and Soundcloud provide a number of feels like free options for home use along with the ubiquitous iPod/Phone, however the access to music was overwhelmingly digital amongst this group. It can be said that both groups access digital content in a number of ways, with the younger group being more selective and more aware of different delivery methods, perhaps indicated by the greater disparity in the services and methods of consumption they chose. Within this younger group, extensive different ways of acquiring digital music were referenced, including demonstrable evidence of LeonhardÊ ¼s (2008) Ê »feels like freeÊ ¼ streaming services such as Spotify and Last.fm. The following extract is taken from the opening stages of the younger focus group; MarT: Spotify, mainly. Youtube too, but there is much less music on there now and when you find something you like it gets deleted after a while for copyright stuff. Spotify have made it so easy and if they have pretty much everything so you can just go there, and if you canÊ ¼t find it aint on Spotify there might be a live version or something on Youtube but the quality is always ropey. The only bad thing about Spotify is that you get ads but its still free and its much safer than downloading audio files. Steve: Everything is so joined up on Spotify, like suggested artists and playlists and stuff, I spose its similar on Youtube, you can spend hours exploring. Claire: And you dont have to buy anything or give your card details over. Similarly both artists are avid users of Spotify amongst other streaming services: Gecko: I know the money is peanuts for getting played on there but it makes you accessible to so many people, some of them dont have enough money to pay for your album or your mp3 or whatever but the fact that they can still access it is important to grow as an artist. Its like playing a gig and barely making the petrol money to get home. We all do it but some of us are a bit more relaxed about the good it does for us. Biometrix: I use Spotify all the time, really its stopped me stealing a lot of music really. Its so much easier than actually downloading something so normally I just do that because I cant be bothered finding what I want and then waiting on it to arrive on my computer. Clearly Spotify offers an innovative model that can fit into both of MyÃ… ¡kaÊ ¼s (2009) subscription service model categories. A monthly fee can be paid to allow listeners to enjoy uninterrupted music without advertising and also allow access to feature rich content such as mobile streaming and offline listening, as well as Leonhards (2009) Ê »feels like freeÊ ¼ model that is funded by advertising. Of the myriad methods of media access identified, use of Web 2.0 music consumption models such as Spotify demonstrates a fall in favour of traditional peer to peer networks, contrary to the testaments of the recording industry (Siwek, 2007.) This goes some way to enforce the claims of Leonhard (2009) that these new, lawful access streams provide an attractive alternative to illegal downloading and also allay industry concerns about copyright protection. The interview subjects also cited the simplicity of these new methods in allowing them to locate music without the extensi ve searching that is commonplace with peer to peer access to media. Engagement with File Sharing: In this section, we assess the subjects involvement with the file sharing. I present rationalisation of the participants use or otherwise of file sharing networks and investigate their understandings and interactions with the legal ramifications of such actions. As the conversation developed, unexpectedly within the older group, many of the participants had used peer to peer services in the past, whilst perhaps their usage was limited, responses seemed mixed. Shaun: IÊ ¼ve used Megaupload in the past Yeah. Subscribed to that. We didnt download without our subscription, but now lapsed, I dont about the kids but yeah, Megaupload. I used to et a lot of other stuff there like films and ebooks so it was great. We can see that the participants have an understanding of file sharing as a concept, if not perhaps the finer points of nodal networking. There is an inference that by purchasing a subscription the subject considers themselves to have bought their downloads. This is however false and the subscription simply provides faster download speeds. The artists had a more sophisticated understanding of how rights related to downloading and sharing content, however it is notable that this greater insight did little to dissuade them from partaking in file sharing. Biometrix: Yeah I do download stuff, not as much as I used to but if theres something I cant find on Spotify or Soundcloud or that stuff then I will just go on a torrent site but I feel bad about it, I reckon, well I reckon because I think about what it would be like if the musicians were like me, just starting out or something. The guilt mechanism in this response shows a belief that the RIAA/BPI position is correct and that the copyright issues surrounding this kind of media access is universally illegal. This shows some support for the industry having a direct influence over peoples online interactions despite their diminished market share. One of the artists in particular also uses p2p sharing to promote and distribute their own material. Biometrix: I try to make a couple of free songs every month and put them on soundcloud for people to download. Its pretty much a thanks to all the people on Facebook, Soundcloud and Youtube who like my music and keep my profile hits high. I know theyre on the torrent sites but I dont mind, they were free anyway. This positive use of filesharing allows the artist greater exposure with virtual nil as an overhead, undercutting the top-heavy music industry and presenting the egalitarian model favoured by McLeod (2005). Responses to Legal Issues Industry Implications; This section aims to build on the responses in the previous section by filling out the subjects understanding of the legal issues involved with file sharing. Particularly noticeable in these answers is the difference between the artist and audience categories. As mentioned earlier there have been many examples of litigations against providers of p2p services, such as the media-circus trial of Ê »The Pirate BayÊ ¼ founders. Whilst the audience groups had little knowledge of such cases the artists seemed far better versed in what was going on within the industry to shape the distribution of music. Biometrix: Yeah, IÊ ¼ve know a lot about it actually The pirate bay have been found guilty of copyright abuse and theyre appealing their jail term now I think. Its a pretty big deal, all of the big film companies have been after them. The site is still going though, so it doesnt seem to have done much good does it? Gecko: Pirate bay is huge. Its not just pirating things, they do all sorts, politics and freedom of speech stuff and all of that. I think it was started by activists but I dont know whos involved nowadays. As soon as something gets taken off it seems to come straight back up. Loads of people use it. Infringement and theft are put forwards by McLeod as tactics to enforce the monopoly of the recording industry. Of the subjects opinions on the significance file sharing has for the music industry, the various subjects displayed an array of responses. The following extracts are taken from the older subjects; Dominic: Small bands dont have a bean basically. Those are the people you are robbing off, not the execs or anything. Emma: They must be getting paid somehow, the music is still out there. Robert: But the money doesnt go to the band. This passage underlines the fact that members in this group believe that the majority of income for musicians, particularly less prolific artists, is provided by their record sales. This understanding of the revenue streams available to music industries also demonstrates a finely tuned understanding of what the Ê »music industryÊ ¼ entails. Williamson and CloonanÊ ¼s (2007) arguments against the wide spread use of the term, based on my findings, suggest older generations are indeed more inclined to understand the term equating to the recording industry. The actions of the recording industries and the responses from audiences can be seen as an example of Michel de CerteauÊ ¼s idea of Ê »strategies and tacticsÊ ¼ (1984). The strategies of the power structures within the relationship, in this case, the industries retention of traditional retail models and the discourse that it equates to the music industry (BPI, 2009), in contrast to the tactics of audiences. This investigation finds between age demographics the response tactics identifiable and noticably different. The older group creates their own space through a sceptical approach to recording industry practices, methods of media access and opinion demonstrate stronger ties with the recording industry discourse crime and punishment. The both the artists and younger group members seemed much more separated from these established means of operation, shown in their symRobhy for file sharing, anti-corporate comments and reluctance to trust established regulations regardin g copyright infringement. Based on the findings outlined above, the suggestion is that audiences are highly aware that there are legal implications surrounding the sharing of files, but their opinions and responses to the validity of these implications are generationally split. The evidence provided by the younger demographic of both audience and artists provides support for the views of McLeod (2005) whereas the older group demonstrated a much more accepting response for the necessity of copyright legislation as a protection against theft. Applying music retail and commerce theories presented by Anderson (2006) and Dubber (2007), most of the participants appeared to be informed of the changes online distribution was experiencing, although there was rejection of the industrys reluctance to develop progressive content access agreements along with them. The divergence of opinion in the application of rights enforcement between the two groups adds weight to the arguments presented by Garofalo (2003), acting to s et the balance between the two sides of the rights argument, preventing the financial exploitation of free music, whilst also managing a free channel of access to consumers. Conclusion It can be established from the results of my investigation that audience and artist opinions are divided on the justifications for rights protection and the enforcement thereof in relation to digital music access. Whilst there is clear evidence of a move towards digital media consumption, there is a distinct generational gap in the manner in which different age groups access music digitally. Older generations seem to fall into line with traditional models of product capitalisation, purchasing physical formats and viewing transgression of copyright online as theft. Younger subjects more immersed in digital media and having grown up during the internet gold rush have a far less strict attitude to the acquisit Effects of Copyright on the Consumption Music Effects of Copyright on the Consumption Music The aim of this dissertation is to understand the effects of copyright on the consumption and acquisition of music online. With a focus on Feels Like Free services such as Spotify as well as illegal file sharing services, research into the copyright issues surrounding the debate present a picture of how music is being consumed at present. Building on notable works and theories of research in the area {} the dissertation supplies evidence supporting the continuing dominance of labels as right-holders in the new digital era. With one-on-one interviews with emerging artists at the forefront of digital music as well as group interviews with consumers a convergence of opinion on key points provides an insight into the effectiveness of current digital music distribution services as well as the enforcement and enforceability of current copyright laws. Introduction This dissertation focusses on the challenges of distributing digital music in an era of unprecedented web use. Access to digital media is increasingly a part of peoples every day lives and the issues surrounding access to content and the legal implications therein are the subject of much debate. It is natural that the rights holders and their representatives would assume a position protecting their legal rights and the cases of pursuance of both individual and commercial rights infringers are well documented, however some say copyright law is dated (Negroponte, 1995) and beyond the task of policing the digital frontier of music distribution. This dissertation investigates the effect of copyright on audience and artist attitudes to digital music distribution in both legal and illegal forms. Using relevant literature and established studies it addresses the benefits of the chosen research for this investigation and provides results giving evidence for the various claims and counter cla ims made on both sides of the copyright argument. In doing so it is intended that my results will give a picture of current distribution methods and their ability to deal with copyright as well as rights holders ability to enforce it in an increasingly digitised age. By gathering evidence using one-to-one interviews with two emerging artists as well as consumer interviews conducted at group level I am able to establish the artists interaction with the process of copyright and the extent to which it alters their distribution of music whilst also engaging the audience in debate about their understanding and adherence to the existing issues surround accessing digital music. The involvement of both artist and audience provides a unique opportunity to pinpoint the present effect of the existing systems of music distribution and the copyright protection available. Digital Music Copyright At the crux of the debate surrounding digital music distribution is the issue of copyright and the infringement thereof. Arguments both for and against the current system of rights ownership and management are well documented and some clear division between the opinions of those who hope to gain capital from the ownership of rights and those who wish to produce and consume digital music is revealed. The representative bodies existing to support the rights of the artist , such as the BPI (British Phonographic Industry) and the RIAA (Recording Industry Association of America) have staunch views on the use of their intellectual property and defined by the BPI, copyright in its current form can be surmised as follows: Copyright is the foundations which the music business is built. In its simplest terms, it is a form of intellectual property and, as such, gives the creator or the owner/ author of that work exclusive rights over how it is published, distributed and adapted. (BPI [online] 2009) The collective gusto of the recording industry to enforce their stance on what they see as a critical issue to the music business has led to much bad publicity and a galvanisation of some copyright infringers as a group with a serious social point to make. Kembrew McLeod (2005) agrees that infringement of copyrighted material online presents a significant problem for the monopoly held by the industry giants, even going as far as to view this as a positive consequence of file sharing and distribution. Arguing in favour of a diminished corporate monopoly, McLeod uses examples of successes for smaller independent artists, helped in part by the evolution of media distribution methods available to cut out the middle-man. With both artist and audience interviews revealing a symRobhy for McLeodÊ ¼s statements, most participants demonstrated a sophisticated understanding of the possible advantages that new distribution methods offer smaller/less established artists, who often work outsi de of the boundaries of the established music industry. Williamson Cloonan (2007) accuse the BPI of blurring its distinction between the ‘interests of British record companies which it claims to represent with a wider definition of the ‘music business . The process of recording, distributing and marketing music is one element of the music industry but its inferred connection to grassroots music of all levels seems to be the bone of contention, as is borne out in my group research. The strength of language words and aggressive tone of both the RIAA and BPI in dealing with infingers, combined with the appropriation of the wider music industry for moral grounds (Williamson Cloonan, 2003, p. 305-7) adds to a misunderstanding regarding what exactly the music industry is and how it affects users access to media. There is an obvious disparity in opinion on either side of the debate surrounding copyright law, with the nature of what copyright represents and who it protects a nd particularly how it is relevant to new digital models of distribution and consumption open to much debate. These diverging opinions are likely to have an impact on how consumers and artists understand the issues within this field, and clearly how they relate and react to them. Media Access The history and development of studying audiences and their consumption habits is by now highly sophisticated and the subject of much debate and research. Using the work of others as a guide as well as theory and research my aim is to understand how audiences are accessing digital content and if their understanding of the legality of so doing , alters how they interact with the content. Longhurst (2007) observes that the most significant contemporary change to [music consumption] is coming through downloadability (p. 205). The pervasive nature of digital consumption in todays culture is displayed throughout both artist and audience responses showing high levels of use and understanding of the medium. An RIAA commissioned report (Siwek, 2007) carried out in the United States by the Institute for Policy Innovation (IPI) suggest that online copyright infringement costs the industry $12.5 billion annually(online). It is fair to assume the the access to both legal and illegal digital musi c is affect the industry greatly but these figures are open to criticism for there bias. The research of Huang (2005) into file sharing as a means of music consumption through group interviews of college students concludes that music file sharing is now a facet of music culture from a social perspective. My studies have some support for this claim with even artists describing extensive p2p use and one actively embracing it as a means of propagation of his material. Mascheroni et al (2008) conducted a comparable ethnographic study digital television consumption. The study concludes that young viewers are capable of defining their relationship with media based on present developments in the field rather than existing paradigms and traditions, and in doing so perhaps goes some way to explain the findings of Huangs research on college students. In similar ethnographic profiling Harwood (1997) compared television viewing Robterns of different aged groups, finding that decisions are representative of perceived Ê »social identityÊ ¼. It is arguable that similar influe nces are at play in consumers interaction with digital music consumption and with the increasing convergence of digital content, user generated content, and the social influences aforementioned, copyright infringement and any repressions appear to have very marginal impact on consumption habits. Based on the highlighted works the interaction between consumers and the legal implications surrounding content access are likely to vary in line with social perception and experience led understanding of the field. The fact that the artists were so Robert about file sharing, their involvement with it and its potential for positive use, adds weight to the claim copyright regulations for digital music are past their prime and lacking in effectiveness. Unique Online Considerations Various possible explanations for the ways in which digital media access has changed consumption habits have been covered previously. Increased media access has inevitably led to increased temptation to use nodal connectivity for illegal file sharing, although if the enactment of this abuse is as widespread as the BPI and RIAA would like us to think is another matter. Borne out of this peer to peer system of file distribution new products are being brought to market that provide alternatives to illegal acquisition of content. Analysing the manner in which consumers access content and services online has led to , sophisticated modEmmang of the accessibility and demand for said content and services. AndersonÊ ¼s (2006) presents a long tail model which serves as an example of such studies. The model refers to online commercial distribution with the most popular and commercial, products at one end of the graph with the highest volume of sales. The graph extends to illustrate the alm ost limitless potential for online sales in specialist or minority markets. Fig i. Long Tail Model (Anderson, 2006) Anderson further sets forth an opinion that the broadening of potential promotion and distribution online has increasingly opened up more possibilities for for both artists and consumers. Applying the long tail theory, it is obvious that it proposes a different system of economics to the traditional retail sector. Adding to this the obvious advantages of products being available around the clock, often irrespective of regional restrictions and the idea of a new economic model is further strengthened. The ability to cover areas of minuscule interest with little additional overheads enables retailers to offer huge depth of choice as well as broadening the idea of ownership of content through streaming.. Clearly the economics of online commerce are very different to the traditional model, however the rules of engagement surrounding copyright are expected to fit both models. two is different, yet the laws of copyright remain the same. Illegal sharing of content is viewed as an infringement of rights and therefore a form of theft as attested by the RIAA. The case that eventually closed the late nineties file sharing platform Napster, as detailed first by Merriden (2001) and then Menn (2003) illustrates the ramifications and interest in the first high-profile case of file sharing. Speaking of Napster Wall states; The record companies proposed that the Napster system ripped off artists and would kill music, while they made the legal argument that Napster encouraged the infringement of copyrights they held. Napster countered by arguing that members of Napster were making fair non-commercial use of the rights already assigned with the original sale of the record that had been converted into mp3 files. (Wall 2003, p223) Continuing where the Napster litigation left off, cases between the industry and p2p networks are still widespread today, showing that the industry has moved on little in the intervening years. The Swedish prosecution and proposed imprisonment of the creators of infamous file sharing tracker The Pirate Bay (Johnson Kiss, 2009) is perhaps the highest profile case today and could be seen as the modern Napster. In an attempt to bolster the music industries grasp on digital distribution a number of new models have been brought to market., Many mobile phone operators worldwide now offer unlimited music bundles with cell contracts and the emergence of streaming services mentioned such as Last.fm and Spotify, are seen in the group interviews to have a positive influence on peoples adherence to copyright. Gerd Leonhard (with Kusek 2005 2008) is describes these services as Ê »feels like free.Ê ¼ Advertising and premium service upgrades present the creates potential for capitalisat ion of music. Spotify has been a particular success in Europe, with the BBC reporting figures that already 5% of its users have upgraded to a premium service, giving it some 320,000 users paying  £10 per month for its full offering (BBC, 2010, online). This small percentage provides and annual turnover in the region of  £38,400,000 excluding additional revenue provided by advertising, proving that Spotify is a serious force in the online distribution business without even launching fully in the United States. By looking at audience habits and interaction with both copyright and media we can see that the new media model and the traditional approach to distributing music are increasingly unable to keep up with the consumer driven demand for online services, leaving companies such as Spotify to move in and become a type of new music industry for the 21st century. The difficulty inherent to their role is that the copyright for the material they wish to distribute is often owned by o ne of their more traditional predecessors. Methodology In this chapter I offer justification for the effectiveness of my methods for the collection of audience and artist responses to their interaction with digital music copyright. I use two groups of participants; one younger (16- 25) as well as a group from an older demographic of consumers (40-65) with both groups being representative of consumers as well as two individuals representative of artists. As this study represents a small cross section of the many people who are involved in roles as both consumer and artist definitive conclusions solely gathered from my findings alone are difficult to ascertain. The value however, of conducting the comparative interview types, is the provided overview of responses, and how they interplay with the core arguments surrounding the debate. Work by Huang (2005) and Macheroni et al (2008) would suggest that younger audiences are less concerned about the implications of peer to peer sharing and thus more likely to use the distribution method. Using relative methods I build upon their work, highlighting and supporting claims by providing complimentary evidence and similar findings. HuangÊ ¼s (2005) use of groups interviews highlighted specific areas of interest with direct interaction with audience members, whilst MascheroniÊ ¼s (2008) research adopted ethnographic studies of online, as well as off line interaction in a more one to one manner. Due to the nature of copyright interaction online ethnographic study of users could be applied to researching users of file sharing services. The problem with this is the anonymity in this type of cinteraction, discussed by Watt, Lea and Spears (2002). Although there is potential for some light to be shed on how audiences share music online, it would be difficult to rationalise the reasons for this activity, providing little evidence to illuminate the reader on audience behaviour. My own studies, made use of extensive one on one interviews allowing unsigned artists a mouthpiece within the debate. The benefit of exposing the artists to the one on one interview process was expected to be a greater understanding and experience of copyright yielding technical data on the subject. This was then coupled with group based research. With guidance from Bertrand and Hughes (2005, p81), the group interviews, were expected to benefit from inter-participant discussion allowing some involved to make up in shortfalls of technical knowledge. As a well established means of audience research, group interviews can help garner natural responses from participants. It must always be considered however that these discussions do not take place in unmonitored environments and so must be viewed as having the potential to be polluted by the participants knowledge that what is being said is also being recorded. A particularly pertinent issue given the legal climate surrounding the issues covered. The legal aspect of my research may encourage participants to shy away from full, Robert answers, however the focus group environment should also foster greater candour and less inherently solicited responses than that of one on one interviews for instance (Boubour 2007) although the combination of the two means of study should have a balancing effect on the results. Research Findings Here I present the findings of my primary research investigating the interplay between copyright issues and digital music consumption. The material put forward here is the product of the two group interviews and two individual interviews with consumers and artists respectively. The discussions centred around the same key themes including the participants access to and use of digital music as well as attitudes and understanding of the related legal issues. Of particular importance for my study are responses they may have relevance towards legal the constraints and considerations surrounding the notion of digital music access. Providing the the structural basis of this chapter my aim is to discover any visible Robterns between the responses of the two types of interviewee. Consumption Listening Habits: The primary question for the interviews is one of use and involvement in digital music. It is essential to establish the extent, if any, to which the interview subjects interact with digital music content, irrespective of its origin. The following section examines participant music consumption routines and in particular, digital music consumption habits. Based on their replies, I address the stereotype that older audiences are less willing and able to undertake interaction with new delivery methods whilst isolating comparisons between the groups in other forms of music consumption. On broaching the subject of use of digital music with the older group, it was clear that most participants were involved and responsive to the means of content distribution. Many of the group cited the iPhone or iPod as an influence on their ease of access and enjoyment of digital music, proving Apple have a huge say in how this market is set to develop. either using mp3 players or their mobile phone to co nsume digital music. When the group was asked if they had access to a digital music player the response was as follows, Howard: Of course IÊ ¼ve had mp3 phones for a good 5 years now and players for a bit longer. Dominic: Yeah me too I would say, not the players but the phones, I use an iPhone for everything now. Howard: I still use my player for jogging though, I dont like to be bothered by phone calls but I still want my music with me. Most made some use of access to digital music on a regular basis. This helps to dispel the myth of a generation gap regarding digital media use as alluded to in the work of Mascheroni et al (2008). Although this establishes a commonality in usage of devices we are yet to establish meaningful connections between access and consumption habits. In the older group. The concept of digital music consumption representing the mainstay of their listening habits produced varied responses. For the older group the response was as follows: Dominic: For the car or the house I spose real music, sorry I should say CDs and stuff I spose, real music is normally what I go for. Robert: Yeah the same really. This is similar to the attitudes of both artists interviewed. Biometrix: Yeah its really all about vinyl for me but that normally means I have to rip the vinyl if I want to listen to it on my phone or anything like that Gecko: I collect all sorts of CDs and records, when we go on tour I normally come back with a pile of discs Ive either bought or been given. With the artists and the older audience still actively engaged in the acquisition and collation of music it is clear that there is still a space for tangible products within the music industry. Such observations are notably absent when dealing with the younger of the group studies. In this group there was evidence of a fractured landscape of media access with no commonly held method of consuming music. Youtube, Spotify and Soundcloud provide a number of feels like free options for home use along with the ubiquitous iPod/Phone, however the access to music was overwhelmingly digital amongst this group. It can be said that both groups access digital content in a number of ways, with the younger group being more selective and more aware of different delivery methods, perhaps indicated by the greater disparity in the services and methods of consumption they chose. Within this younger group, extensive different ways of acquiring digital music were referenced, including demonstrable evidence of LeonhardÊ ¼s (2008) Ê »feels like freeÊ ¼ streaming services such as Spotify and Last.fm. The following extract is taken from the opening stages of the younger focus group; MarT: Spotify, mainly. Youtube too, but there is much less music on there now and when you find something you like it gets deleted after a while for copyright stuff. Spotify have made it so easy and if they have pretty much everything so you can just go there, and if you canÊ ¼t find it aint on Spotify there might be a live version or something on Youtube but the quality is always ropey. The only bad thing about Spotify is that you get ads but its still free and its much safer than downloading audio files. Steve: Everything is so joined up on Spotify, like suggested artists and playlists and stuff, I spose its similar on Youtube, you can spend hours exploring. Claire: And you dont have to buy anything or give your card details over. Similarly both artists are avid users of Spotify amongst other streaming services: Gecko: I know the money is peanuts for getting played on there but it makes you accessible to so many people, some of them dont have enough money to pay for your album or your mp3 or whatever but the fact that they can still access it is important to grow as an artist. Its like playing a gig and barely making the petrol money to get home. We all do it but some of us are a bit more relaxed about the good it does for us. Biometrix: I use Spotify all the time, really its stopped me stealing a lot of music really. Its so much easier than actually downloading something so normally I just do that because I cant be bothered finding what I want and then waiting on it to arrive on my computer. Clearly Spotify offers an innovative model that can fit into both of MyÃ… ¡kaÊ ¼s (2009) subscription service model categories. A monthly fee can be paid to allow listeners to enjoy uninterrupted music without advertising and also allow access to feature rich content such as mobile streaming and offline listening, as well as Leonhards (2009) Ê »feels like freeÊ ¼ model that is funded by advertising. Of the myriad methods of media access identified, use of Web 2.0 music consumption models such as Spotify demonstrates a fall in favour of traditional peer to peer networks, contrary to the testaments of the recording industry (Siwek, 2007.) This goes some way to enforce the claims of Leonhard (2009) that these new, lawful access streams provide an attractive alternative to illegal downloading and also allay industry concerns about copyright protection. The interview subjects also cited the simplicity of these new methods in allowing them to locate music without the extensi ve searching that is commonplace with peer to peer access to media. Engagement with File Sharing: In this section, we assess the subjects involvement with the file sharing. I present rationalisation of the participants use or otherwise of file sharing networks and investigate their understandings and interactions with the legal ramifications of such actions. As the conversation developed, unexpectedly within the older group, many of the participants had used peer to peer services in the past, whilst perhaps their usage was limited, responses seemed mixed. Shaun: IÊ ¼ve used Megaupload in the past Yeah. Subscribed to that. We didnt download without our subscription, but now lapsed, I dont about the kids but yeah, Megaupload. I used to et a lot of other stuff there like films and ebooks so it was great. We can see that the participants have an understanding of file sharing as a concept, if not perhaps the finer points of nodal networking. There is an inference that by purchasing a subscription the subject considers themselves to have bought their downloads. This is however false and the subscription simply provides faster download speeds. The artists had a more sophisticated understanding of how rights related to downloading and sharing content, however it is notable that this greater insight did little to dissuade them from partaking in file sharing. Biometrix: Yeah I do download stuff, not as much as I used to but if theres something I cant find on Spotify or Soundcloud or that stuff then I will just go on a torrent site but I feel bad about it, I reckon, well I reckon because I think about what it would be like if the musicians were like me, just starting out or something. The guilt mechanism in this response shows a belief that the RIAA/BPI position is correct and that the copyright issues surrounding this kind of media access is universally illegal. This shows some support for the industry having a direct influence over peoples online interactions despite their diminished market share. One of the artists in particular also uses p2p sharing to promote and distribute their own material. Biometrix: I try to make a couple of free songs every month and put them on soundcloud for people to download. Its pretty much a thanks to all the people on Facebook, Soundcloud and Youtube who like my music and keep my profile hits high. I know theyre on the torrent sites but I dont mind, they were free anyway. This positive use of filesharing allows the artist greater exposure with virtual nil as an overhead, undercutting the top-heavy music industry and presenting the egalitarian model favoured by McLeod (2005). Responses to Legal Issues Industry Implications; This section aims to build on the responses in the previous section by filling out the subjects understanding of the legal issues involved with file sharing. Particularly noticeable in these answers is the difference between the artist and audience categories. As mentioned earlier there have been many examples of litigations against providers of p2p services, such as the media-circus trial of Ê »The Pirate BayÊ ¼ founders. Whilst the audience groups had little knowledge of such cases the artists seemed far better versed in what was going on within the industry to shape the distribution of music. Biometrix: Yeah, IÊ ¼ve know a lot about it actually The pirate bay have been found guilty of copyright abuse and theyre appealing their jail term now I think. Its a pretty big deal, all of the big film companies have been after them. The site is still going though, so it doesnt seem to have done much good does it? Gecko: Pirate bay is huge. Its not just pirating things, they do all sorts, politics and freedom of speech stuff and all of that. I think it was started by activists but I dont know whos involved nowadays. As soon as something gets taken off it seems to come straight back up. Loads of people use it. Infringement and theft are put forwards by McLeod as tactics to enforce the monopoly of the recording industry. Of the subjects opinions on the significance file sharing has for the music industry, the various subjects displayed an array of responses. The following extracts are taken from the older subjects; Dominic: Small bands dont have a bean basically. Those are the people you are robbing off, not the execs or anything. Emma: They must be getting paid somehow, the music is still out there. Robert: But the money doesnt go to the band. This passage underlines the fact that members in this group believe that the majority of income for musicians, particularly less prolific artists, is provided by their record sales. This understanding of the revenue streams available to music industries also demonstrates a finely tuned understanding of what the Ê »music industryÊ ¼ entails. Williamson and CloonanÊ ¼s (2007) arguments against the wide spread use of the term, based on my findings, suggest older generations are indeed more inclined to understand the term equating to the recording industry. The actions of the recording industries and the responses from audiences can be seen as an example of Michel de CerteauÊ ¼s idea of Ê »strategies and tacticsÊ ¼ (1984). The strategies of the power structures within the relationship, in this case, the industries retention of traditional retail models and the discourse that it equates to the music industry (BPI, 2009), in contrast to the tactics of audiences. This investigation finds between age demographics the response tactics identifiable and noticably different. The older group creates their own space through a sceptical approach to recording industry practices, methods of media access and opinion demonstrate stronger ties with the recording industry discourse crime and punishment. The both the artists and younger group members seemed much more separated from these established means of operation, shown in their symRobhy for file sharing, anti-corporate comments and reluctance to trust established regulations regardin g copyright infringement. Based on the findings outlined above, the suggestion is that audiences are highly aware that there are legal implications surrounding the sharing of files, but their opinions and responses to the validity of these implications are generationally split. The evidence provided by the younger demographic of both audience and artists provides support for the views of McLeod (2005) whereas the older group demonstrated a much more accepting response for the necessity of copyright legislation as a protection against theft. Applying music retail and commerce theories presented by Anderson (2006) and Dubber (2007), most of the participants appeared to be informed of the changes online distribution was experiencing, although there was rejection of the industrys reluctance to develop progressive content access agreements along with them. The divergence of opinion in the application of rights enforcement between the two groups adds weight to the arguments presented by Garofalo (2003), acting to s et the balance between the two sides of the rights argument, preventing the financial exploitation of free music, whilst also managing a free channel of access to consumers. Conclusion It can be established from the results of my investigation that audience and artist opinions are divided on the justifications for rights protection and the enforcement thereof in relation to digital music access. Whilst there is clear evidence of a move towards digital media consumption, there is a distinct generational gap in the manner in which different age groups access music digitally. Older generations seem to fall into line with traditional models of product capitalisation, purchasing physical formats and viewing transgression of copyright online as theft. Younger subjects more immersed in digital media and having grown up during the internet gold rush have a far less strict attitude to the acquisit

The Triad Of Impairments In Asd Psychology Essay

The Triad Of Impairments In Asd Psychology Essay Having aspirations to become an educational psychologist, I have always held a strong interest in clinical conditions such as Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and how they can affect a persons behaviours. This interest has been further fuelled by my nephew having been recently diagnosed with high functioning ASD. Whilst I am familiar with the behavioural aspects of this disorder I lack knowledge on the neurological explanations. I wish to change this to increase my understanding of ASD in order to be better equipped to offer my nephew and others with ASD the best possible support. Introduction The complexity of Autistic Spectrum Disorders is partially due to the fact that, until recently, there were no clear biological functions which corresponded with the syndrome. Scientific developments in brain imaging in recent years, however, have enabled psychologists to begin to research ASD from a neurological perspective, meaning that the symptoms of ASD are beginning to be understood more clearly as an expression of a neural disorder (Just et al, 2012). According to the DSM-IV a person can be diagnosed with ASD when they exhibit symptoms under the following three primary criteria: Qualitative impairment in social interaction Qualitative impairment in communication Restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities. The above symptoms are often referred to as a triad of impairments. However, in the proposed DSM-V there is the possibility that the social and communication impairments will be combined and that in the future the definition will form a dyad of impairments instead (Pina-Camacho et al, 2011) . At the time of writing, however, a triad of impairments still exists. This essay is focusing not on the general differences between the brains of typically developing (TD) humans and humans with ASD, but on the neurological explanations for the most prominent behavioural symptoms of ASD. Accordingly the triad of impairments will be taken, one by one, and possible neurological explanations will be explored. Qualitative impairment in social interaction Much of the neurological research on ASD focuses on this impairment following the pattern of behavioural research on ASD. Indeed, one of the most prominent theories of ASD, the Theory of Mind (Baron-Cohen, 1985), focuses almost entirely on the social deficits, arguing that people with ASD struggle with mentalising; they lack social insight and are unable to perceive the world from another persons viewpoint. From a neurological standing, however, it is not enough to assume that people with ASD do not have a Theory of Mind; instead, we must understand biologically why this may be so. Brothers (1990) conducted a variety of studies, both with humans and other primates, and proposed that primates alone have social cognition they are able to perceive psychological facts about others. Through the examination of evolutionary studies, as well as the study of clinical conditions which can affect social cognition, Brothers proposed a neural network of regions in the brain, which, combined create the social brain: Superior temporal sulcus (STS) plays an important role in social perception and is implicated in the processing of many types of sensory information which are relevant to social interaction, e.g. selective sensitivity to vocal and speech sounds rather than to non-vocal sounds and the processing of the motions of hands, face, eyes, and body, especially if the motions relate to emotion in some way (Neuhaus et al, 2010). Fusiform gyrus (FG) region is thought to display a selective response to human faces and is often referred to as the fusiform face area (FFA) (Neuhaus et al, 2010). Prefrontal cortex (PFC) a subdivision of the PFC is the ventromedial PFC, a region including the orbital frontal cortex and the ventral part of the anterior cingulate cortex areas implicated in motivation, reward, and emotion processing, and planning for the future. This region also has extensive connections with the amygdala (Neuhaus et al, 2010). Amygdala involved in processing emotions, empathy, perspective taking and social judgements (Neuhaus et al, 2010). Figure A A diagram of the regions of the brain thought to comprise the social brain. Data retrieved from: http://www.jaynejubb.com/june2012article.htm It seems highly probable that damage to a region in the social brain is likely to cause some visible social deficit. Thus, ASD may be explained, to a certain extent, through abnormalities in these regions when compared to TD humans. Various studies support this idea; the amygdala theory of autism, for example, proposes that there is an amygdala impairment in people with autism, which can help to explain the deficits in their social behaviour (Baron-Cohen, 2000). Given that the amygdala is strongly associated with emotion along with other social functions, irregularity in this region could well contribute to the lack of social insight so often noted in people with ASD. In an earlier study, Baron-Cohen et al (1999) conducted an fMRI study comparing TD subjects with patients with high-functioning ASD or Asperger Syndrome (AS) on a mentalising task whereby participants were asked to judge from a photograph of another persons eyes what emotion that person was feeling. They found that when TD participants were attributing emotional states to the photographs, there was increased activation in their STGs and amygdalas areas associated with social perception and emotion. The ASD and AS group, however, did not show increased activation in the amygdala. Other research suggested that as well as decreased amygdala activity, people with ASD tend to process faces differently to TD people, using the right inferior temporal gyri (ITG) an area more commonly associated with processing objects, rather than the FFA (Schultz et al, 2000). Research by Pierce et al (2001) also found that there was either weak or no activity in the FFA and the amygdala in response to the human face in autistic patients but found no evidence to suggest that they used the ITG as an alternative. The differences in the results of Pierce and Schultz may be due to their samples, with Schultz using a sample including participants with autism and AS and Pierce using a sample only of participants with autism. Caution is urged when placing too much emphasis on the FGs association with faces as previous research has suggested that this region may not be face specific but may be activated when objects increase in familiarity (Gauthier et al, 1999). Fletcher et al (1995) used PET scans to compare brain activity in normal volunteers when reading Theory of Mind stories, physical stories and unlinked sentences. When activity during the Theory of Mind stories was compared with the others, the authors discovered significant activation in the left side of the medial frontal gyrus and in the posterior cingulate cortex regions in the prefrontal cortex suggesting that these regions are specifically activated when a person is mentalising. Furthermore, Castelli et al (2002) used PET scans on ten able adults with ASD or Asperger Syndrome (AS) whilst they watched a variety of animated sequences, and were asked to attribute mental states to the animations based upon what they had seen. The TD group showed increased activation in their medial prefrontal cortex, superior temporal sulcus and temporal poles, areas associated with social cognition, as described above. The autism group, however, showed less activation than the normal group in all of these regions. Qualitative impairments in communication Symptoms in this impairment range from a total lack of development of spoken language, to a person having adequate speech but being unable to use it in conversation with others, to stereotyped and repetitive use of language (DSM-IV) making it difficult to explain the impairment as a whole. There is also less literature in general on trying to explain the communication deficit in ASD than there is on trying to explain the social deficit. This may be because aspects of the communication deficit are not applicable to people with AS or high-functioning ASD whereas the social deficit is central to all ASDs. Within the left hemisphere of the brain are two areas that govern the understanding and production of speech: Brocas area and Wernickes area. Brocas area is in the frontal lobe and is primarily involved in the production of speech; Wernickes area is in the temporal lobe and is mainly involved with speech comprehension (Passer et al, 2009). Also in the left hemisphere of the brain is the primary auditory cortex an area associated with hearing and thus also largely involved in language production and comprehension (Passer et al, 2009). One possible explanation for a lack of language development is therefore likely to involve damage or irregularities in the left hemisphere of the brain and more specifically in the above areas. Boddaert et al (2004) used PET scans to compare the brain activity of eleven autistic children with six non-autistic mentally retarded children while they were listening to speech-like sounds. They found that there was less activation in speech-related areas, including Wernickes area, in autistic children. In previous work with autistic adults (Boddaert et al, 2004) they had found abnormal right frontotemporal activity but this was not found with the children. Research by Eyler et al (2012) measured the brain activity of forty toddlers with ASD and 40 TD toddlers during the presentation of a bedtime story. Their results showed that a region of the left STG, an area which includes both Brocas and Wernickes area, was significantly less responsive to speech stimuli in the group with ASD than in t he TD group. The TD toddlers showed dominance in the left hemisphere of the brain, as one might expect, given the association between the left hemisphere and language. Contrary to the Boddaert et al study, Eyler et al did find that toddlers with ASD however displayed stronger activation on the right anterior portion of the STG rather than the left. The differences in the results of the groups may be that the sample in the Boddaert et al study was significantly smaller than the sample used by Eyler et al, with only 11 autistic participants compared to 40. Eyler et al propose that the right STG may be trying to compensate for the incompetent processing of the left STG but that by doing so the development of social communication and language abilities is being lost, thus providing an explanation for not only language delay but also ineffective communication in people with ASD. Restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interest and activities There are very few neurological studies focusing on this aspect of ASD. An fMRI study by Shafritz et al (2008) on repetitive behaviour in ASD showed that the severity of restricted, repetitive behaviours was negatively correlated with activation in anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and posterior parietal regions areas associated with attention, motivation and error detection (Neuhaus et al. 2010). Research by Thakkar et al (2008) supports this finding. Through an experiment on response monitoring they found functional and structural abnormalities in the ACC in ASD participants and suggested that this may cause rigid and repetitive, rather than responsive and flexible behaviour. As the cerebellum is concerned primarily with muscular movement co-ordination but also plays a role in learning and memory (Passer et al, 2009), Pierce and Courchesne (2001) examined the possibility of a link between cerebellar abnormality and exploration in autism. They held an experiment where 14 autistic chi ldren and 14 TD children were in a large room with several exploration containers and encouraged to play. The results showed that children with autism spent significantly less time in active exploration and were more likely to engage in repetitive movements than TD children. They found that the more abnormal the cerebellar vermis, an area in the medial cerebellum (Passer et al, 2009) the less time spent in exploring a new environment. Conclusion Much more literature exists examining the neurological explanations of social impairments in ASD than in the other two impairments. A vast amount of evidence exists associating the social deficits in ASD with irregularities in various regions of the social brain; the superior temporal sulcus, the fusiform gyrus, the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala. A lack of activity in the left hemisphere of the brain is likely to contribute to the communication impairment visible in AS. There is very little literature on the restricted behaviour impairment but recent work has proposed a possible association between cerebellar abnormality and exploration and between the ACC and repetitive behaviour. Further work is needed in all three areas ideally work could be conducted that could help to explain all three impairments rather than focusing on a single one.

The Division of Church and Teens… Essay -- Essays Papers

The Division of Church and Teens†¦ It seems in today’s world every night on the news we see examples of high school aged Americans who are committing crimes and hurting people around them. Whether it is a school shooting, kids being busted for drugs, underage drinking, or vandalism we are seeing more examples of high school aged kids doing things that are severely looked down upon. This problem has not been resolved because we keep seeing it as a continuing issue in the news everyday. With the cutting of extracurricular budgets for schools and other organizations the availability of good programs for high school kids to participate in is declining year by year. Therefore many kids are spending their time doing unconstructive things that may lead to ill-advised behavior. Although there are thousands of explanations for this irrational behavior ranging from violence on TV to the availability of guns, a significant reason is a lack of spiritual values associated with religion and the church. However, to und erstand this reason you must recognize that by referring to spirituality and the church I am encompassing all religions. Nevertheless due to the restrictions on the length of this paper I will use specific examples and not be able to fully explore every religion. Furthermore I will be focusing in general on specific examples occurring in America because they relate better to this essays projected audience. In addition, by asserting my above statement I am also implying that all religions have â€Å"good† values and that these values are a possible solution to this increasing problem. In general this is a true statement because I believe all of the larger more populous religions reinforce stability and a given set of values ... ...assertion is contradictory to my argument because I am implying that they are related. - â€Å"Religion, parental input protect from effects of violence†. Academic Search Premier. December 10, 2003. Biotech Week. 24 February, 2004. . This article talks about how religious beliefs help to keep kids out of conduct trouble and relates to my argument because it supports my claim about teenagers avoiding bad behavior by embracing religious values. - â€Å"Town to bury first shooting victim as police pursue third suspect†. CNN.com. April 24, 1999. Cable News Network. February 24, 2004. http://www.cnn.com/US/9904/24/school.shooting.01/index.html> Relates facts about the Columbine shootings in which a mother supports my argument that high school students need to be more devoted toward religion.

The Innumerable Benefits to Home Schooling Essay -- Home-School Educat

The Innumerable Benefits to Home Schooling In his book The Right Choice – Home Schooling, Chris Klicka argues that â€Å"Sending our children to the public school †¦ is tantamount to sending our children to be trained by the enemy† (Crank 25). Though his words may be considered harsh by some parents, many Americans agree with him and feel that public school is only endangering their children; home schooling is the modern day alternative that many mothers and fathers have chosen to turn to. Those who feel that the world of the public school is detrimental to their children’s growth and health are not alone; they share the beliefs of many parents who feel that home schooling has many benefits and advantages that public schools cannot offer to students today. Among complaints about public schools is that they are anti-religion. Advocates for home schooling say that children cannot be brought up in a religious atmosphere at home and then be sent to school where it is challenged or ridiculed. This would be very difficult for a child, especially because it can be difficult for adults at times. Former President of Yale University, Timothy Dwight, even stated, â€Å"to commit our children to the care of irreligious persons is to commit lambs to the superintendency of wolves† (Crank). There are two primary ways in which schools are classified as anti-religion. Schools may directly attack a religion by supplying its students with books of history and literature. In historical references, there is little about the positive effects of religion and in literature, it can be attacked very subtly, while other books convey its evil side. Schools are often also considered anti-religious is because they can completely ignore religion, which ... ...m/campaign/815/c3teachers.html Christian Home Educators of Florida. (2003). Retrieved November 19, 2003. from http://www.christianhomeeducatorsofflorida.com/faq.htm Crank, D. (2002, Dec. ). Why are you home schooling?. Unless The Lord ... Magazine. Retrieved Nov. 23, 2003, from http://www.unlessthelordmagazine.com/articles/Why%20Homescho oling.htm Curry, Lorraine. (1997). Homeschool World: Combining Work and Homeschool. Retrieved November 23, 2003. from http://www.home-school.com/Articles/phs18-lorrianecurry.html Donaldson, K. Pros. Retrieved Nov. 19, 2003, from Bowling Green State University: http://www.bgsu.edu/colleges/edhd/LPS/EDFI/SampleWebs/Fall02/26/pros.htm Lechtreck, Roy. (1994, January). The Case for Homeschooling. Retrieved November 19, 2003 www.libertyhaven.com/politicsandcurrentevents/educationhomeschoolingorchildren/ casehomescho.shtml

A Conceptual Study on HR in Special Reference Essay

ABSTRACT In the present globalized era the environmental changes took place very frequently. So if an organization wants to compete in the cut throat competition they have to cope up with these changes. In the past several decades, technology has had a dramatic impact on human resource management (HRM) processes and practices. For example, technology, especially the World Wide Web, has helped modify many HR processes including human resource planning, recruitment, selection, performance management, work flow, and compensation. These new systems have enabled HR professionals to provide better service to all of their stakeholders (e.g. Customers, Shareholders, Suppliers, Government, Employees etc) and reduced the administrative burden in the field. Despite the widespread use of these systems, there has been a surprising dearth of theory and research on the topic. As a result, the purpose of this special issue is to (a) Human Resource Information System, (b) advance theory and research on human resource management systems (HRMS) and electronic human resource management (eHRM), and (c) Enhance the effectiveness of these systems in organizations. As a result, this article reviews the evolution of HRIS and provides a brief overview of the existing literature, and introduces the article in the special issue. â€Å"HRIS is a management system designed specifically to provide managers with information to make HR decisions.† In the present vast knowledge economy information is power. For efficient management of human assets, HR professional requires accurate and timely data on Recruitment & Selection, Training and Development, Human Resource Planning etc so the aim of paper is to present a conceptual knowledge of HRIS and to explore the impact of information system on HR performance. Key words:- HRM, HRIS, eHRM, HRMS, Stakeholders 1. INTRODUCTION Since the emergence of the internet throughout the world around 1995, many business functions have been transformed. After dealing with accounting, finance and marketing, many companies are shifted their attentions to find a better way of monitoring their Human Resource Management (HRM). Many companies are transforming their HRM functions from manual workflow to computerized workflow. Computers have made the tasks of analyzing the tremendous amount of human resource data into a simple task. Computer hardware, software and data base help organizations maintain and retrieve human resource better and simpler. According to Gara (2001) and Walker (1982), a Human Resource Information System (HRIS) will help organizations â€Å"keep an accurate, complete, updated data base that can be retrieve when needed from reports and manuals.† Then Tannenbaum (1990) defines an HRIS as a system that will acquire, store, manipulate, analyze, retrieve and distribute information about an organization’s human resources. Kavanagh et al. (1990) defined HRIS as â€Å"a system used to acquire, store, manipulate, analyze, retrieve and distribute information about an organization’s human resources. An HRIS is not simply computer hardware and associated HR-related software. Although an HRIS includes hardware and software, it also includes people, forms, policies and procedures and data†. HRIS is a key management tool which collects, maintain, analyses and reports information on people and jobs. It is a system because it integrates all the relevant data, which otherwise might have been lying in a fragmented and scattered way at various points ion the larger system; converts this data in to meaningful conclusions or information and makes it accessible to the persons, who need it for their decisions. It is a concept which utilizes the development of Information Technology for effective management of the HR functions and applications. HRIS helps organizations in managing all HR information. It helps in recoding and analyzing employees and organizational information and documents, such as employee handbook, emergency evacuation and safety procedures. The nature of HRIS varies among organizations in relation to their size. In small organizations, it tends to be informal whereas in large organizations, it is more formal and coordinated. Lengnick-Hall and Moritz prompt HRIS to be implemented at three different levels: †¢ The publishing of information †¢ The automation of transactions †¢ Transformation of HR into a strategic partner with the line business 2. HRIS – Why it is needed? †¢ Storing information and data for each individual employee. †¢ Providing a basis for planning, decision making, controlling and other human resource functions. †¢ Meeting daily transactional requirements such as marking absent and present and granting leave. †¢ Supplying data and submitting returns to government and other statutory agencies. †¢ Building organizational capabilities. †¢ Job design and organizational structure. †¢ Increasing size of workforce. †¢ Technological advances †¢ Computerized information system †¢ Changes in legal environment 3. COMPONENTS OF HRIS There are three major functional components of HRIS : †¢ Input function – It enters personnel information into the HRIS. Data entry in the past had been one way, but today, scanning technology permits scanning and storage of actual image of an original document, including signatures and handwritten notes. †¢ Maintenance function – It updates and adds new data to the database after data have been entered into the HRIS. †¢ Output function – It is the most visible function of HRIS. In order to generate valuable output for computer users, HRIS processes output, makes necessary calculations and formats the presentation. It should be noted that most important elements of HRIS are not the computers, rather, the information. So, the components of HRIS should support validity, reliability and utility of information. 4. HRIS APPLICATIONS AND UTILITIES Personnel administration – It will encompass information about each employee, such as name address, personal details etc. Salary administration – Salary review procedure are important function of HRM, a good HRIS system must be able to perform what if analysis and present the reports Of changes. Leave and absence recording — Essentially be able to provide comprehensive method of controlling leave/absences. Skill inventory – It is also used to store record of acquired skills and monitor the skill database both employee and organizational level. Performance appraisal — The system should record individual employee performance, appraisal data, such as due date of appraisal, scores etc. Human resource planning — HRIS should record details of the organizational requirements in terms of positions Recruitment — Record details of recruitment activities such as cost and method of recruitment and time to fill the position etc. Career planning – System must be able to provide with succession plans reports to identify which employee have been earmarked for which position. Collective bargaining — A computer terminal can be positioned in the conference room linked to database. This will expedite negotiations by readily providing up to date data based on facts and figures and not feelings and fictions. THE HRIS MODEL [pic] 5. CONTRIBUTE VALUES TO HR THROUGH HRIS: HRIS serves two major purposes in organizations: HR ADMINISTRATIVE AND OPERATIONAL ROLE: The first purpose of an HRIS is to improve the efficiency with which data on employees and HR activities is compiled. Many HR activities can be performed more efficiently and with less paperwork if automated. HR STRATEGIC ROLE: The second purpose of an HRIS is more strategic and related to HR planning. Having accessible data enables HR planning and managerial decision making to be based to a greater degree on information rather than relying on managerial perception and intuition. 6. HRIS IMPLEMENTATION: Implementing anything is part of project Management. Implementing HRIS in organization is a big activity which require support of many stakeholders such functional, HRIT S, IT Vendor and project manager. Implementation can be divided into given below parts. †¢ Need Analysis. †¢ Vendor Selection. †¢ Process Mapping and complete data gathering. †¢ Creation/Deployment of HRIS application in Test server. †¢ Testing by sample users. †¢ Pre-deployment training to users. †¢ Deployment of HRIS in production. †¢ Post Training and Support. †¢ Feedback. 7. BENEFITS OF HRIS When the administrative tasks and processes of any human resources department become overwhelmed, the most appropriate solution would be to implement the human resources information system. Common administrative functions that involve filling reports and completing paperwork take up a lot of time of the human resource department and this is where the HRIS comes in. Many businesses nowadays are now realizing the importance of HRIS and using the software to increase the efficiency of the whole company. The following are some of the major benefits of HRIS. a. Improves productivity The HRIS systems assist in enhancing both the productivity and workflow of the human resource department. This is because, all the data is usually collected and placed in a central database. This is very beneficial since data is going to be very easily retrieved from the database. b. Saves time Through reducing the total amount of time spent on the administrative functions, human resource employees are able to focus on other essential duties. For example, they can carry out other productive functions like creating presentations, training staff members, succession planning and recruiting since they have enough time due to the HRIS system. c. Improves communication with the employees HRIS creates a database that each employee has access to and thus you will be able to communicate better with your employees through the network. It also has email scheduling capabilities that make it very efficient in terms of assigning jobs to various employees in a very short period of time. d. Creates self-service options Due to the fact that all the relevant information concerning the company or business is placed in large database, the employees can be able to access useful information without having to spend a lot of time going from one office to the next. At the same time, it is very easy to update the information in the database for proper administration. The only disadvantage is that important data concerning your company might be stolen particularly nowadays where there is a great increase in cyber crime. 8. THE CHALLENGES OF INDUCING HRIS SOFTWARE INCLUDES: Selecting right HRIS vendor: The selection of software vendor is the most critical of all the decisions. A successful ERP vendor is not always the best provider of an HR solution. A vendor with experience of developing most of the solutions related to human resource, whether in the personnel or talent management domains or other processes associated with HR offers a better choice, and if such a vendor has the strength of utilizing latest technology & a vision to perceive the future needs of HR fraternity, he may rate the highest on the scale. Mere branding of the products does not necessarily mean quality, though it does carry a higher price tag. Moreover, a vendor providing complex solutions, for which special skills may be needed for initial data entry, maintenance & creation of management reports, need not be rated high. If HRIS software can not configure the existing workflows in an organization and wants the user to adapt to the Vendor HR processes, it is likely to be heavy both on training time & costs and may also gather resistance to its usage at the grass root level. A dedicated and customer oriented vendor will move a mile extra to map all client processes on his solution and indicate well in advance the extent of customization required. He may even introduce a set of best practices provided by his solution but leave their adoption to the client. A good HRIS vendor is conscious of the cost but always sells quality. Onus of responsibility – There is a misconception that introduction of HRIS can relieve HR Manager of all responsibilities. To large extent, HRIS can free up HR Manager from transactional tasks. However, it also brings with it a new set of responsibilities to ensure that the software is being used and implemented correctly. The onus of co-operating with the software vendor and ensuring successful deployment lies with the client HR manager. Over expectations – Due to overstress on the benefits of HRIS software, partially by the media and partially by the marketing departments of software vendors, organizations have developed larger-than-life expectations from the software solutions. When the solutions are unable to deliver these over-expectations, the clients tend to lose confidence in the vendors. The only way out is either pre-sales discussions or a clear statement of user expectations in the form of a Request for Proposal (RFP) document, to which the vendor responds as per the strengths of his solution, including the additional effort required for customization, if the same is technically feasible. Resistance to change – Employees at the client location are attitudinally inclined to use only the existing system. They enjoy the loopholes in the processes, moreso the inability of a manual system to track progress. Therefore, they offer great resistance to change, especially if the change calls for the acquisition of new skills by the employee. Their resistance to change leads to lack of enthusiasm and co-operation in successfully implementing software systems. The onus of responsibility for change management lies entirely with the client, but some vendors do offer HR consultancy as a supplement to their solutions. Training Requirements – HRIS software may have a completely new interface, large number of functions and specially configured workflows. It may demand users to exhibit some level of expertise in understanding the technology solution. When faced with the new software, user experiences anxiety and may display discomfort in using the system. Such discomfort can result in remaining ignorant of various features, thereby denying to yourself the benefit of full exploitation of the software. A good software vendor can resolve this issue by providing on the system training to key personnel and prepare them as torch bearers. He would also provide sufficient on-line help features to all the users. Configuration and Data transformation – Configuring software to an organization’s need and transferring data from existing database to new HRIS is another issue that needs to be handled carefully. The existing data may be either on paper or excel files or in some other form of database. Due to ignorance by employees at client location, the data may not enter the new system in the desired manner, thus obstructing the smooth and efficient functioning of the system, besides creating an inventory of bugs. Best solution to this malady is for the Vendor to obtain data from the client as per a standard template, validate it with a program and consider initial data entry as a service provided to the customer. Software Errors and Bugs – Bugs, error and opportunities for improvement are integral part of software. Expecting HR Software to be picture-perfect and without any errors/ omissions is unfair. These bugs need not scare people since these can be resolved through mutual co-operation between the vendor and client. Once settled, they do not reappear.However, if new bugs surface with higher levels of exploitation of the software, these should be taken as encouraging signals both by the client and the vendor. Work Flow Changes – When you install HRIS software, you also install some innovative globally accepted HR practices and workflows. If you have these practices for the first time, some of the members in your organization may not feel comfortable with the changes, especially the change of work flow. Such changes should be handled very carefully as they can have significant emotional impact on the team members. HR should be ready to award benefit of doubt to the members who suffer a negative impact due to these changes and allow ample time for the new workflows to set in. You need preference and commitment to introduce systems. Remember this if you are keen to implement HR software solutions. 9. CONCLUSION: HRIS has a very wide scope in developing countries. It is applied in personnel administration, salary administration, leave/absence recording, skill inventory, medical history, performance appraisal, training and development, HR Planning, recruitment, career planning, negotiation etc. It is very important for an organization to clearly identify its system requirements before implementing HRIS. This would enable to decide the appropriate level of sophistication of HRIS and would lead to optimal utilization of scarce resource. HRIS database should be used as a single source of all information. This would lead to the development of an integrated HRIS platform for the whole organization. In today’s corporate world human resources has come to play a very critical role. Whether it concerns the hiring and firing of employees or whether it concerns employee motivation, the Human Resources department of any organization now enjoys a very central role in not only formulating company policies. A complete HRIS links all human resources data from the time professionals enter pre- service training to when they leave the workforce. Continuous monitoring and evaluation is vital in determining what an HRIS is accomplishing, what needs to be improved and whether results are being achieved. In future, Human Resource Professionals will be more dependent on higher level and integrated HRIS approaches in order to support more complex as well as free forms of organizations. 10. REFERENCES: 1. Prof. Bhavsar C. Anil, â€Å" A conceptual paper on HRIS † vol.1,Issue.v/Nov.2011pp.1-4. 2. Gara,S.J.(2001). â€Å"How an HRIS can impact HR: a complete paradigm shift for the 21st century. Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) White Paper, Retrieved November 11, 2002, from http://www.shrm.org/whitepeper/documents/default.asp?page=63001.asp 3. Kovach, K.A., & Cathcart, C.E. (1999). â€Å"Human resource information systems: providing business with rapid data access, information exchange and strategic advantage.† Public Personnel Management, 28 (2), 275-282. 4. Tannenbaum, S. I. (1990). HRIS: user group implications. Journal of Systems Management, 41 (1), 27-32. 5. Walker, A. J. (1982). HRIS Development: A Project Team Guide to Building and Effective Personal Information System. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. 6. Lengnick-Hall, Mark L. and Moritz Steve (2003), â€Å"The Impact of e-HR on the Human Resource Management Function†, Journal of Labor Research. 24(3), pp. 365-379. BOOKS 1. Hilkka Poutanen, DEVELOPING THE ROLE OF HUMAN RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR THE ACTIVITIES OF GOOD LEADERSHIP, Acta Univ. Oul. A 553, 2010, ISBN 978-951-42-6171-8 (Paperback). 2. Mohan Thite & Michael J. Kavanagh, Evolution of Human Resource Management and Human Resource Information Systems† The Role of Information Technology†, TMH. 3. Michael D. Bedell, Michael Canniff & Cheryl Wyrick, Systems Considerations in the Design of an HRIS â€Å"Planning for Implementation†, TMH

Economics of Preventive Health care Essay

In order to fully appreciate the magnitude of determining cost effectiveness in healthcare outcomes management and planning, a short primer on healthcare economics is required (Block, 2006). According to Block, many professional programs do not teach the basic concepts and theories of healthcare economics as part of the medical school curriculum in the applied medical science; often both clinicians and administrators realize the importance that healthcare economics plays in the delivery of healthcare goods and services during the practical experience. The quest for better and more affordable healthcare is prompted an increasing number of businesses to contract with Health Maintenance Organizations to provide insurance coverage to employees and their families (Graber, 1998). Based on Garber, HMO’s typically try to promote the maintenance of proper health by encouraging a comprehensive approach to healthcare as a means of preventing more serious problems in the future; as a result of this trend, healthcare providers everywhere now place additional emphasis on preventive healthcare. This type of healthcare focuses on patient instruction in areas such as proper eating habits, weight control, stress management, exercise, cholesterol reduction, and eliminating smoking (Askew et. al, 2001). According to Garber, the goal of this approach is to help the patient avoid complications that can result from a destructive lifestyle. Public spending on human development increased with rising GDP per capita, and was generally concentrated on programs that benefited the poor, such as primary and secondary education and basic curative and preventive healthcare (Haggard, 2000). According to Block, when beginning to explore the basic concepts and theories of healthcare economics, one question arises: â€Å"Why do individual patients and the community-at-large demand healthcare goods and services? Several factors have been identified to answer this question; first, the United States has been experiencing changes in the age structure of the general population for several decades – people are generally living longer, but not necessarily healthier, with adequate functionality and an excellent quality of life. Second, as real and disposable income has increased, consumers of healthcare delivery goods and services have deployed higher expectations with respect to healthcare outcomes. Finally, improvements in healthcare technology and the growth of medical informatics as a separate discipline within the applied medical sciences have lead to an increased range of healthcare interventions; as the demand for healthcare goods and services continues to change and evolve within the next few decades, the need for professional healthcare administrators and clinicians to better understand the basic concepts and theories of healthcare economics becomes more critical. Health economics may be broadly defined as the application of theories, concepts and techniques of economics to the healthcare delivery system (qtd. n Block, 2006). As Block stated, several key areas of interest within the discipline of applied medicals sciences include: the allocation of resources (i. e. , land, labor, and capital) between various health promoting activities; the quantity of resources used in healthcare delivery; the administrative organization and funding of healthcare institutions; the efficiency with which healthcare resources are allocated and used for clinical and administrative healthcare delivery; and, the effects of preventive, curative, and rehabilitative healthcare services on individual utility and societal welfare. The overall aim of healthcare economics is to inform the healthcare constituencies so that the choices for allocating and using healthcare goods and services maximize the benefits and outcomes to the applicable population and individuals (Block, 2006). According to Block, healthcare economics may be examined at both a macro and micro level of attention. A closer look into the macroeconomics of healthcare delivery in the United States is required; there are some basic U.  S. healthcare economic indicators that must be explained including the annual health expenditure, the rate of healthcare inflation, the per capita healthcare expenditure, and the distribution of healthcare expenditures (Block, 2006). Based on the article â€Å"Does Preventive Care save Money? Health Economics and the Presidential Candidates† that I have read, I can say that as of now there is a little variation on the effect of preventive healthcare on its effectiveness. I agree with Cohen, that definitely, a number of proofs do imply that there are ‘opportunities’ to advance health and save money by ‘prevention’ but ‘far-reaching statements’ about ‘cost-saving potential’ of prevention conversely, are ‘overreaching’. I think that it is correct that avoiding illness may in a few scenarios save cash however in other scenarios may add to the cost of healthcare. I also agree that ‘preventive measures’ which don’t save money might or might not correspond to ‘cost-effective’ because of many factors. As what Cohen investigated, it has been reported that the dispersal of ‘cost effectiveness ratios’ of ‘preventive treatments and measures’ are comparable, which means that efficient investment opportunities on programs in healthcare are approximately very similar for the treatment and prevention. Based on the study, it can be concluded that a number of ‘preventive measures’ can save money, whereas the others don’t, though they could also be sensible because they present ‘health benefits’ in relation to their cost; on the contrary, a number of ‘preventive measures’ are costly (Cohen et. al. , 2008). I agree with Cohen that, in general, whether a particular preventive measure represent a good value or poor value depends on factors such as the population targeted, with measures targeting higher risk populations typically the most efficient.